A Review of the Sediment Production and Transport Processes of Forest Road Erosion
1. Introduction
Therefore, to enhance our understanding of the mechanisms governing sediment production and transport in forest road erosion and its ecological and hydrological effects, this article provides a comprehensive review of relevant research conducted globally over the past two decades. Building upon the established knowledge of sediment production mechanisms in road erosion, this review systematically summarizes the sediment transport processes associated with road erosion at varying scales, explores its ecological and hydrological consequences, and evaluates the mitigation measures employed. Furthermore, the review highlights that, compared to road erosion research, there is insufficient attention paid to the transport of eroded sediment, but it is still on the rise. The focus of future research should shift from the on-site effects to the off-site effects of road erosion, which encompass the more serious and broader threats of road erosion. Our research establishes a foundational resource for the prevention and management of forest road erosion and the preservation of ecological and hydrological stability.
2. Mechanisms of Sediment Production from Forest Road Erosion
2.1. Road Erosion Units
2.2. Factors Affecting Sediment Production of Forest Road Erosion
2.3. Assessing Sediment Production of Forest Road Erosion
3. The Transport Mechanisms of Forest Road-Eroded Sediment
3.1. Transport Process of Eroded Sediment on Forest Road Surfaces
3.2. Transport Process of Eroded Sediments on Forest Road–Stream Slopes
3.2.1. Sediment Transport Mechanisms
3.2.2. Sediment Connectivity between Roads and Streams
3.3. Transport Process of Forest Road-Eroded Sediment in Streams and Its Ecological Effects
4. Regulation of Forest Road Erosion and Sediment Transport
5. Prospectives
It is evident that previous studies have made significant contributions to understanding the mechanisms of road-eroded sediment production, the transport process of eroded sediment, and the measures for preventing and controlling sediment transport. These studies have provided valuable insights into the understanding of sediment transport both on-site and off-site within the forest road prism. However, we believe that several aspects still require further research and investigation.
Firstly, with regard to the research focus on forest road erosion, most studies primarily concentrate on either the erosion characteristics of a specific unit of the road prism or are at the road section scale; they rarely consider the entire road prism as a whole to explore the mechanism of eroded sediment production. Moreover, sediment production and transport processes in road erosion are often studied and discussed separately, which limits the in-depth understanding of the off-site effects caused by road erosion within the watershed. Therefore, we suggest that future research should pay attention to the interrelationships between various road erosion units by exploring the sediment production characteristics of different erosion units on forest roads. At the same time, the road prism should be regarded as a whole system of eroded sediment production within the watershed, and further investigation should explore the water sediment transport from the linear road network to the watershed based on the eroded sediment production process.
Secondly, in terms of research methods for forest road erosion, most studies rely on artificial simulation experiments rather than field monitoring. However, simulation experiments are often based on overly idealized or hypothetical conditions, resulting in significant discrepancies in results compared to field monitoring. Additionally, the emergence and development of road erosion models have opened up new possibilities. While these models have demonstrated impressive performance at the watershed scale, variations in modeling parameters, empirical factors, research perspectives, and regions make different models regionally specific and challenging to apply universally. Therefore, we recommend that field monitoring should integrate new technologies such as fingerprint recognition and laser scanning to enhance work efficiency and accurately quantify sediment yield and transport in road erosion. Based on a substantial amount of field monitoring data, the setup conditions for artificial simulation experiments can be improved to better align with natural scenarios. On this foundation, the forest road erosion prediction models can be refined by adjusting model parameters to enhance their accuracy and applicability.
Furthermore, concerning the research on forest road-eroded sediment transport, almost all studies have concentrated on the transport of eroded sediment within the road prism, neglecting the sediment transport processes taking place on the road–stream slope, which include detachment and deposition. Nevertheless, the transport process of sediment on the road–stream slope is crucial for exploring the off-site effects of road erosion. This process directly influences how much road-eroded sediment can enter the stream and the associated ecological effects. Therefore, it is essential to address the gaps and shortcomings in the research on sediment transport at the slope scale, particularly from the perspective of connectivity. Sufficient exploration of sediment transport and hydrological processes between roads and streams is necessary. Specifically, field monitoring should be carried out at road drainage outlets, transport pathways, and stream entrances to obtain accurate and effective water sediment transport data on road–stream slopes. Additionally, the spatiotemporal dynamics of water sediment transport and the factors influencing connectivity between roads and streams should be identified through field investigations or artificial simulation experiments. On this foundation, connectivity indices, such as IC, can be introduced and improved to quantify the interaction between roads and streams. A comprehensive understanding of the inherent connections of sediment transport processes across various scales is also necessary and plays a crucial role in studying road-eroded sediment transport and understanding and applying sediment connectivity.
Finally, regarding the regulation of forest road erosion, two aspects should be considered: one is controlling the yield of eroded sediment from road erosion sources and the other is reducing sediment transport based on the principle of connectivity. Currently, regulation measures for road erosion are primarily proposed and implemented to reduce erosion and intercept sediment transport within the road prism, with limited emphasis on sediment connectivity between roads and streams. However, the road–stream slope serves as not only a necessary passage in the transport of eroded sediment but also the final link for road-eroded sediment to enter streams. Therefore, the focus on regulating forest road erosion should be adjusted, and it is essential to implement measures such as planting vegetation, constructing sedimentation basins, establishing buffer zones, and introducing other regulatory measures on road–stream slopes. Furthermore, integrating road erosion control concepts into road construction processes to proactively protect roads from erosion and adopting a combination of engineering and biological measures could help limit or reduce the production and transport of sediment. Moreover, the development of specific regulatory measures based on the unique conditions of the research area not only aids in fully utilizing road functions but also prevents soil erosion and protects the ecological security of the watershed. Simultaneously, it is essential to further explore the economic costs and ecological benefits of implementing these regulatory measures.
6. Conclusions
The severe environmental impact of forest road erosion is receiving increased recognition, leading to extensive research efforts in this field. Significant progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms behind eroded sediment production, with a comprehensive and specific grasp of the underlying processes. Furthermore, research methods continue to evolve and advance to meet new research objectives. In comparison, there is a need for enhanced research into the transport processes of forest road-eroded sediment. This aspect is pivotal in uncovering the off-site effects of forest road erosion and understanding the adverse consequences of eroded sediment transport on the ecological and hydrological balance of watersheds. Therefore, the research on road erosion sediment transport and regulation is the most promising. Driven by this demand, sediment transport processes have been subject to qualitative and quantitative analysis. Notably, the introduction and application of sediment connectivity have significantly contributed to the investigation of sediment transport processes, offering insights into strategies for reducing and mitigating road erosion and sediment transport. While engineering and biological regulatory measures for controlling forest road erosion and sediment transport have been proposed and implemented, there is room for further exploration of cost-effective and efficient solutions. The combination of engineering and biological measures is more effective in reducing the negative impact of road erosion. This research is summarized and discussed based on the aforementioned aspects, with the aim of providing essential knowledge for reducing the production and transport of forest road-eroded sediment to streams. Future research should still focus on the regulation of eroded sediment, as well as the interception of sediment before entering rivers, which can help improve the global environmental problem of road erosion.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, Q.Z. and S.D.; methodology, J.Y. and Z.Y.; software, J.Y. and Y.L.; validation, J.Y., Y.L. and Z.Y.; formal analysis, J.Y.; investigation, J.Y.; resources, J.Y.; data curation, J.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, J.Y.; writing—review and editing, Q.Z.; visualization, J.Y.; supervision, Q.Z. and S.D.; project administration, Q.Z. and S.D.; funding acquisition, Q.Z. and S.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41971229), Natural Science Foundation of Henan Province (202300410050), Program for Science and Technology Innovation Talents in Universities of Henan Province (22HASTIT013), and Xinyang Academy of Ecological Research Open Foundation (2023DBS01, 2023XYZD03).
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Daniel Petticord at the University of Cornell for his assistance with the English language and grammatical editing of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 1.
Number of studies on ‘Forest road fill slope erosion’, ‘Forest road cut slope erosion’, and ‘Forest road surface erosion’ from 2000 to 2023.
Figure 1.
Number of studies on ‘Forest road fill slope erosion’, ‘Forest road cut slope erosion’, and ‘Forest road surface erosion’ from 2000 to 2023.
Figure 2.
Number of studies on ‘different methods for evaluating sediment production’ from 2000 to 2009 (a) and from 2010 to 2023 (b), and number of studies on ‘different emerging technologies’ from 2010 to 2023 (c).
Figure 2.
Number of studies on ‘different methods for evaluating sediment production’ from 2000 to 2009 (a) and from 2010 to 2023 (b), and number of studies on ‘different emerging technologies’ from 2010 to 2023 (c).
Figure 3.
Number of studies on ‘Forest road-eroded sediment’ and ‘Forest road-eroded sediment transport’ from 2000 to 2023.
Figure 3.
Number of studies on ‘Forest road-eroded sediment’ and ‘Forest road-eroded sediment transport’ from 2000 to 2023.
Figure 4.
The transport process of forest road-eroded sediment.
Figure 4.
The transport process of forest road-eroded sediment.
Figure 5.
Formation and development of different transport pathways of lower hillslope, where STE represents the sediment transport efficiency.
Figure 5.
Formation and development of different transport pathways of lower hillslope, where STE represents the sediment transport efficiency.
Table 1.
Annual erosion intensity of different erosion units in various types of roads.
Table 1.
Annual erosion intensity of different erosion units in various types of roads.
Road Type | Erosion Units | Annual Erosion Intensity (t ha−1 yr−1) |
Study Area and Data Sources |
---|---|---|---|
Forest logging road | Gravel road surface | 10~16 | Piedmont, Virginia, USA [42] |
Soil road surface | 34~87 | Piedmont, Virginia, USA [42] | |
Soil road surface | 272~275 | Peninsular Malaysia [43] | |
Forest pathway | Soil road surface | 204 | Southwest Puerto Rico [6] |
Soil road surface | 170 | Central Spain [44] | |
Soil road surface | 54 | United States Virgin Islands [2] | |
Cut slope | 20~70 | United States Virgin Islands [2] | |
Forest unpaved road | Soil road surface + Cut slope | 5258 | Shandong, China [3] |
Soil road surface + Cut slope | 2773 | Shandong, China [3] | |
Soil road surface + Cut slope | 670 | Shandong, China [3] | |
Cut slope + Ditch | 5290 | United States Virgin Islands [19] | |
Cut slope + Ditch | 2670 | Victoria, Australia [45] | |
Gravel road surface + Ditch | 513 | Victoria, Australia [45] | |
Cut slope | 220 | Palencia, Spain [46] | |
Road surface | 247 | South Africa [20] | |
Fill slope | 3~44 | Hahn Province, Spain [47] |
Table 2.
The erosion intensity of different erosion units of soil roads during rainfall events.
Table 2.
The erosion intensity of different erosion units of soil roads during rainfall events.
Erosion Units | Erosion Intensity per Event (g m−2) | Study Area |
---|---|---|
Cut slope | 160 | Northeast Spain [32] |
Road surface | 14 | Northeast Spain [32] |
Fill slope | 10 | Northeast Spain [32] |
Cut slope | 486 | Mediterranean [48] |
Road surface | 162 | Mediterranean [48] |
Fill slope | 27 | Mediterranean [48] |
Cut slope | 106 | Southern Spain [40] |
Fill slope | 17 | Southern Spain [40] |
Table 3.
Advantages and disadvantages of different road erosion models.
Table 3.
Advantages and disadvantages of different road erosion models.
Empirical Model | Advantage | Disadvantage |
WARSEM | Considers various erosion units of road prism and is applicable to watershed scale. | Overestimates the sediment yield of road segments. |
RUSLE | Predicts sediment yield and categorizes erosion risk. | Applicable to farmland rather than road. |
ROADMOD | Integrates GIS and network algorithms. | Only considers road surface. |
SEDMODL | Identifies road segments with high sediment yield. | Underestimates overall sediment yield. |
STJ-EROS | Adapts well to changes in sediment yield. | Overestimates the overall sediment yield. |
READI | Assesses sediment yield and transport from road to stream. | Requires relatively high accuracy DEM. |
Physical Model | Advantage | Disadvantage |
WEPP | Predicts sediment yield at multi-time scales. | Involves excessive submodels and parameters. |
KINEROS2 | Predicts sediment yield and transportation of rainfall events. | Lacks consideration of traffic conditions. |
DHSVM | Evaluates the interaction between hydrology, soil, and vegetation. | Requires detailed input parameters. |
Table 4.
Average sediment transport distance (a) and average volume of runoff to reach streams (b) of different sediment transport pathways.
Table 4.
Average sediment transport distance (a) and average volume of runoff to reach streams (b) of different sediment transport pathways.
Gully Pathway | Partially Gullied Pathway | Diffuse Pathway | Data Sources | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Average sediment transport distance (m) | 86.25 ± 6.4 a | 46.25 ± 7.2 b | 22.75 ± 5.6 c | [15,73,80] |
Average volume of runoff to reach streams (m3) | 11.50 ± 3.2 a | 7.23 ± 1.5 b | 2.83 ± 0.3 c | [81,82,83] |
Table 5.
The reduction rate of sediment production by different engineering measures and biological measures.
Table 5.
The reduction rate of sediment production by different engineering measures and biological measures.
Type | Measure | Reduction Rate of Sediment Production (%) | Data Sources |
---|---|---|---|
Engineering measure | Gravel Pavement | 73.18 ± 9.6 b | [108,109,110,111] |
Dam and Ditch | 58.76 ± 10.9 b | ||
Hardwood Slash | 90.65 ± 1.1 a | ||
Sediment Pond | 92.50 ± 3.5 a | ||
Biological measure | Sow Grass | 84.22 ± 8.5 a | [112,113,114,115] |
Cover Mulch | 83.93 ± 13.2 a | ||
Erosion Control Mat | 91.67 ± 5.5 a | ||
Plant Shrub | 59.65 ± 12.3 b |
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