Electric Vehicle Adoption Barriers in Thailand
5.1. Discussion of the Results
A complete Delphi and DEMATEL framework is employed to examine EV adoption barriers in Thailand. A survey of four experts found that the most critical obstacles to the adoption of EVs by individuals were financial, technical, infrastructure, and policy. Based on the customer’s perspective, the study’s findings concluded that technical criteria are the most critical barriers that hinder customer adoption of EVs (Table 5). Specifically, T2 and T1 were cause barriers in both EV and non-EV owners. Furthermore, this study found that I1 was a crucial barrier for both groups of customers. As a result, both groups of customers had a similar perception of the adoption barriers of EVs in Thailand. Our results align with much research that emphasizes long charging duration, limited driving range, and lack of charging stations as crucial barriers to EV adoption [25,30,35].
Meanwhile, EV owners worry not only about T2, T1, and I1 but also about F2, F3, and I3, which makes them concerned when using EVs. EV owners pay more attention to maintenance costs, battery replacement costs, and service and maintenance centers than non-EV owners since these barriers directly impact the ownership of an EV, making these barriers more important for the EV owner’s perception. Compared to other studies conducted in the context of Thailand, the findings of this research differ slightly. Kongklaew et al. [8] indicated that the top three concerns of the respondents about EVs in Thailand were public infrastructure and vehicle performance, such as public infrastructure availability, highway infrastructure availability, public infrastructure range on charge, battery life, and safety. According to the research by Adhikari et al. [6], Thai customers’ primary concern regarding the adoption of EVs was not just the lack of charging spots but also impediments to price and government policy. The results of the research by Thananusak et al. [7] revealed that Thai auto consumers focus more on the performance characteristics of EVs, such as speed, range, and safety, than on infrastructure, such as charging stations, and financial considerations, such as the cost of acquisition, maintenance, and eventual resale value. Differences in context, time, and research subjects can explain the discrepancy.
5.2. Comparisons with Research in Other Markets
Haddadian et al. [36] discussed significant economic, societal, technological, and political barriers to the large-scale adoption and deployment of EVs. Although many barriers are region-specific, innovative business models are critical to encourage private investments along with public sector policies and incentives to create a growing EV market [36]. Kuo et al. [37] investigated the relationship between EV adoption barriers from an automotive industry perspective. The highest-weighted barrier was battery capacity and lifespan, followed by government support, the impacts of tax and subsidy policies, and high costs. Their research indicated that battery capacity and lifespan not only had the highest weighting but also the highest influence on other barriers according to the DEMATEL result.
By the end of 2022, the electric vehicle market in the United States was only 8% [38]. Pamidimukkala et al. [38] investigated how customers perceived electric vehicles and the potential technological, environmental, financial, and infrastructure barriers to EV adoption in the United States. The results indicated that the high purchase price, insufficient public stations, and high battery replacement cost were of most concern. Most respondents were concerned about the EV price and public infrastructure. The high purchase price ranked number one, in line with other studies [39,40].
She et al. [32] classified the barriers to EV adoption in the context of China into three categories: financial, vehicle performance, and infrastructure. Safety, reliability, and range per charge were the top three concerns, and high battery cost was the main technological barrier to widespread EV adoption. The respondents concerned with vehicle performance had a significantly lower EV acceptance. Recently, Shen et al. [41] identified the restricting factors for promoting EVs in China. The results indicated that the top five factors are security issues, limited driving range, long charging time, improper distribution of charging stations, and lack of sharing between charging piles.
Consumers in various markets have different considerations in EV acceptance. Stakeholders could initiate changes to EVs, which would help overcome the adoption barriers and attract increasing consumers.
5.3. Managerial Implications
This research found that T2, T1, and I1 were critical barriers to EV adoption in Thailand for EV and non-EV owners. Therefore, stakeholders must pay attention to these barriers to improve customers’ adoption of EVs. To address the long charging time barrier, EV companies should invest in high-power charging infrastructure, such as DC fast charging stations, research and develop ultra-fast charging technologies, and improve battery thermal management systems. Additionally, Vehicle-to-Grid technology enables bidirectional charging, allowing EVs to consume energy and feed energy back to the grid. Additionally, the use of efficient battery management systems helps optimize the use of battery capacity and improve overall energy efficiency. By providing accurate and transparent information to customers, educating consumers about the actual range of driving of electric vehicles minimizes range anxiety, establishes realistic expectations, and builds customer confidence.
Charging infrastructure is a very complex part of EV planning. Hatt et al. [42] revealed that charging station availability issues significantly impact EV adoption, reinforcing our strategic considerations for improving charging infrastructure. Due to the lack of an existing charging infrastructure in Thailand, electric vehicle sales are low. Governments, utilities, and private companies should collaborate to invest in developing charging infrastructure, particularly in urban areas, highways, commercial centers, and residential areas. They should install fast charging stations along major transportation routes and in key destinations such as shopping centers, restaurants, and tourist attractions. Standardizing charging protocols, connector types, and payment systems is crucial to ensure compatibility and ease of use for EV owners. Smart charging solutions should be implemented that consider grid load, renewable energy availability, and time-of-use pricing to schedule charging sessions when electricity demand is low or renewable energy generation is high.
Since EVs are still being developed in Thailand, the long charging duration and limited driving range are significant barriers with causal elements for both customer groups, demonstrating that both groups have worries about EV technology’s reliability. The car industry and related industries must improve EV technology by increasing the availability of charging stations and home charging conditions. The industry might also actively develop battery materials and energy storage technologies to meet driving range and charging time demands. Substantial investment in research and development is imperative to enhance EV battery technology. This entails improving charging time, enabling faster and more convenient charging experiences. Advancements in battery energy density and capacity will also address concerns regarding limited driving range, providing potential buyers with reassurance. Geny’s [43] research aligns with our identified barriers, limited driving range and long duration of charging, emphasizing the critical role of pricing and charging infrastructure in influencing consumer purchase decisions, thus supporting our strategic considerations. The government can play a pivotal role by implementing regulations and incentivizing automakers to invest in battery technology research and development. Such measures may include tax incentives, grants, or subsidies, which will foster innovation, drive down battery costs, and ultimately increase the affordability of EVs for consumers. Drawing on Jabbari et al. [44], we substantiate our strategy-related discussions by highlighting consumer dissatisfaction as a barrier to EV adoption, particularly emphasizing the impact of policy, in accordance with our identified barrier, impediments to government policy. Moreover, the lack of charging stations in Thailand hinders EV adoption. Hence, the government and related sectors should prioritize charging infrastructure support programs to increase the adoption of EVs and consumer satisfaction and make EVs a better alternative to ICEVs.
In order to enhance the attractiveness of EVs as a sustainable mode of transportation, it is paramount to address the significant barriers identified in this study. Collaboration between the government and the automobile industry is crucial for improving EV infrastructure, for instance, expanding the existing charging station network and establishing a comprehensive system of service and maintenance centers dedicated to EVs. By strategically locating charging stations in urban areas and along major highways, customers will have convenient access to charging facilities, alleviating concerns regarding the limited availability of charging stations. Additionally, specialized service and maintenance centers will reduce maintenance costs and offer reliable and efficient services to customers, thereby instilling confidence in EV technology.
The widespread adoption of EVs in Thailand can be fostered by undertaking these necessary measures, leading to a cleaner and more sustainable transportation system. The availability of accessible charging infrastructure, reliable service and maintenance centers, improved battery technology, and supportive government policies will collectively enhance the appeal of EVs, positioning them as an attractive and viable choice for consumers seeking environmentally friendly transportation options.
Furthermore, recycling becomes crucial when electric vehicles are retired, especially for larger batteries with higher material costs. Contrary to being considered waste, these batteries, with a lifespan of over ten years, can be repurposed as second-hand batteries and utilized as backup power sources. The Thai government is currently working on establishing standards for second-hand batteries, determining their classification as waste or as a product. This approach aligns with environmentally friendly practices, avoiding a waste stream more burdensome than carbon dioxide emissions during disposal and recycling. The Thai government actively supports the establishment of battery recycling factories, encouraging entrepreneurs through incentives and other measures to contribute to responsible and sustainable disposal practices in Thailand.
5.4. Theoretical Implications
Governments worldwide are promoting the adoption of electric vehicles to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and highlight the growing importance of electric vehicles in national transportation policy. Many other approaches are being taken in all countries to promote the use of electric cars, but this process faces many challenges. This research contributes to improving understanding of the multifaceted nature of EV adoption barriers and their interdependence in policy and decision-making. First, our findings provide empirical support for the existing theoretical framework for the adoption of EVs. This study confirms that there are financial, technical, infrastructure, and policy barriers to the adoption of EVs. Second, this research extends the understanding of EV adoption by investigating the perception of non-EV owners and EV owners. The results show that both groups are concerned about charging time, driving range, and lack of availability of charging stations as barriers that prevent them from adopting EVs. Furthermore, our study provides a set of verified barriers to EV adoption and the interrelationship between them in Thailand.
