Initiatives and Prospects for Sustainable Agricultural Production in Karangasem Regency, Bali, Indonesia
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1. Introduction
In Bali, agriculture is the second-most important industry after tourism. Bali has a high potential for agricultural development, given its paddy fields, fruit trees, horticulture, and plantations. Unlike the tourism sector, which is vulnerable to economic, social, and natural disruptions (for example, the number of tourists visiting Bali Province decreased from 6.2 million in 2019 to 1.06 million in 2020 and 51 in 2021 [1]), the agricultural sector is resilient to these disruptions. For this reason, the Bali Provincial Government has focused on agricultural development [2].
Agriculture in Bali is closely related to the beliefs and culture of Balinese people. For example, the Balinese calendar is based on Balinese Hinduism and rooted in the cycle of rice cultivation that has continued for approximately 1000 years. This calendar includes rice-related festivals, which are closely related to various aspects of the lives of Balinese people, and the work schedule for rice cultivation, such as rice planting and harvesting [3]. The irrigation system for rice cultivation in Bali has been developed for a long time and is supported by Subak, a traditional water-use organization. Subak equally distributes water to its members, manages land and water facilities and resources, resolves disputes between members, and enforces agricultural rituals [4]. The unique traits of Subak, which practices environment-based agriculture in natural and cultural landscapes, has attracted worldwide attention [5]; in 2012, the Subak in Jatiluwih was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the title “Cultural Landscape of Bali Province: Subak System as a Manifestation of the Tri Hita Karana Philosophy” [6].
In the 1980s, agriculture in Bali was dependent on chemical fertilizers [7], which cause various environmental problems, including biodiversity loss, soil and water contamination, and eutrophication [8]. Recently, social problems, including the conversion of paddy fields into residential areas, increased waste generation, and water pollution, have occurred in Bali. Therefore, awareness of these issues has gradually increased in recent decades, and the Indonesian Government has emphasized its mandate to achieve “sustainable agriculture” in its new agricultural development plan for 2020–2024 [9,10]. In the context of promoting sustainable agriculture, organic farming [7], systems of rice intensification farming [11], and the plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) [12] have been applied in rice farming in Bali.
In 2022, Bali Province had the highest food security index (IKP = 85.19), which is calculated from three aspects of food security: the availability (ratio of normative consumption to net production of rice, corn, sweet potato, cassava, and sago and local government rice stocks), affordability (percentage of the population below the poverty line; percentage of households with a proportion of expenditure on food of more than 65% of total expenditure; percentage of households without access to electricity), and utilization (average years of schooling for women over 15 years old; percentage of households without access to clean water; ratio of population per health worker to population density level; percentage of stunted toddlers; life expectancy at birth) of food in Indonesia [13], followed by Central Java (82.95), South Sulawesi (81.38), and Papua (37.80). However, there were regional differences within Bali Province [13]; the IKP values for each regency of Bali Province were as follows: Tabanan (92.20), Denpasar (91.82), Badung (91.29), Gianyar (91.07), Jembrana (83.29), Klungkung (83.29), Brereng (79.91), Karangasem (78.79), and Bangli (75.10). The regencies with higher IKP values have more developed irrigation networks than other regions in Indonesia; therefore, rice and other staple crops grow more intensively in such regencies [14].
As the population in Bali is projected to grow from 4.31 million in 2020 to 4.67 million by 2035 [15] and the current population of 4.47 million in 2023 exceeds that projection, agricultural production in the regencies with low IKP values should be improved to ensure a stable food supply for the growing population in Bali Province.
The aim of this study was to determine the current plans and strategies of farmers and the provincial government to balance agricultural productivity and sustainability in Karangasem Regency, which has a lower-than-average (85.19) food security index for Bali Province, and discuss future prospects. The findings of this study contribute to the set of agricultural practices and strategies for increasing agricultural production while maintaining sustainability.
4. Discussion
Global climate change affects food security and sustainability by causing changes in cropping patterns, intensifying plant diseases and pest infestations, decreasing agricultural production, and disrupting the livelihoods of farmers [9]. Indonesia is among the most vulnerable countries to climate change [22]. In Bali, rice cultivation is supported by a traditional water-use organization (Subak) that aims to distribute water equitably [23]. Farmers still embrace the Balinese Hindu philosophy of Tri Hita Karana to maintain traditional rice cultivation systems [24]. The results of the interview revealed that the rice cultivation schedule is also determined by the Balinese calendar and Awig-Awig (Subak regulation). As the demand for agricultural water decreases due to increasing tourism and industrial water use, as well as changing rainfall patterns, equitable water distribution by Subaks is important for maintaining the sustainability of rice cultivation and agricultural production. However, one farmer cited that the timing for rice planting determined by Subaks is a limiting factor for rice cultivation (Figure 3). This also affects the planting of cash crops such as chili, which is planted after the harvest season of rice and is presumably at an increased risk of poor growth due to bad weather. Therefore, using mixed-cropping cash crops or short legumes to bridge the growing season is among the strategies applied to prepare for bad weather and continue generating income while adhering to the growing schedule set by the Subak.
Most of the farmers interviewed cited the lack of sunlight and pest- and disease-induced damage as the major factors (Figure 3) limiting the cultivation of rice and chili—the main crops they grow—because during cloudy or rainy weather, a lack of sunlight delays growth and reduces the vigor of the grass; moreover, disease outbreaks and pest infestations become more prevalent under hot and humid conditions such as those in Bali. Information and communication technology (ICT)-based tools such as WeRise [25] could be used to improve rice crop yields. However, farmers place the highest priority on planting according to the Balinese calendar, and agricultural extension workers cannot provide information on weather. Therefore, it is difficult to avoid the lack of sunlight by using ICT tools and changing the planting time. Additionally, agricultural materials such as LED bulbs and reflective materials could be used [26]; however, these materials are costly and are not a field measure in Bali, as they are greenhouse measures. Therefore, countermeasures against pest outbreaks induced by a lack of sunlight are considered important in Karangasem, Bali.
Although the Awig-Awig determines the planting schedule and crop items, the farmers can freely select the crop varieties they grow (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The most widely planted rice variety in 2012 was the indica rice Ciherang. However, the production of this variety has recently declined, owing to its susceptibility to rice blast. Meanwhile, the percentage of Inpari lines (high-yielding and pest-resistant variety) has increased since 2008 [7]. Recently, widespread efforts have been made to introduce hybrid rice [27]. On the other hand, chili is prone to productivity fluctuations due to weather and climate changes [20]; chili production in Bali repeatedly increased and decreased from 2015 to 2022 [17,28]. The Pilar variety, which is grown by the farmers interviewed, is susceptible to Pepper yellow leaf curl Indonesian virus. Damage caused by this virus has spread throughout Indonesia [29] and was previously confirmed in Bali in 2012 [30]. Setiawari et al. [31] reported that losses due to this virus ranged from 20 to 100%. Interviews revealed considerable differences in Pilar production, which may be due to differences in pest management. Thus, several farmers use high-frequency synthetic insecticides to control the disease; however, there are concerns regarding the negative effects of insecticides on agricultural workers, consumers, and the environment [32]. The freedom of farmers in selecting which crop varieties to grow enables them to select pest-resistant varieties. However, because yield loss due to pests and diseases cannot be prevented by variety selection alone, the use of pesticides has become indispensable for both rice and chili cultivation. Recently, there has been increasing demand for pesticides that are environmentally safe.
4.1. Productivity and Sustainability
The fertilizer subsidy budget of the Indonesian Government for the agricultural development plan for 2015–2019 decreased from Rupiah (Rp) 31.3 trillion (2015) to Rp 26.6 trillion (2019). While the fertilizer subsidy budget in the plan for 2020–2024 remains at Rp 26.7 trillion (2024) due to the impact of COVID-19, the government encourages the use of organic fertilizers [9]. Rice farmers in Indonesia tend to use large amounts of fertilizer purchased at subsidized prices [10]. Therefore, shifting to non-chemical fertilizers is a challenge for rice farmers, who need to maintain productivity. Recently, organic farming has been promoted in Bali [7]. Additionally, liquid biofertilizer is provided by the Bali Provincial Government in Tabanan Regency [33], and this survey revealed that biofertilizers and PGPR are being promoted by the Karangasem Regency Government (Figure 4). Rice faces various plant diseases from germination to maturity. Among them, blast is a typical disease that causes yield loss and is considered one of the most damaging diseases to rice worldwide [34]. In response, Suriani et al. [12] found that simultaneous application of piper leaf extracts and PGPR inhibited blast disease and improved the growth of red rice in Bali. Several studies of PGPR have been conducted for chili [35,36,37]. For example, Thilagar et al. [36] reported that in pot trials, PGPR application increased soil phosphorus levels and produced indoleacetic acid and siderophores, which promoted plant height and stem girth growth in chili. In a field trial on dry land, Ichwan et al. [37] reported that PGPR application increased root biomass and enhanced nutrient water uptake, leading to increased fruit number and fruit weight in chili.
After the Green Revolution, global food production in the 20th century, including Indonesia, has mainly relied on chemical fertilizers and breeding. However, the continuous use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides and the resulting adverse environmental effects are problematic [21]. With the need for sustainability in agriculture in Bali, the use of PGPR can mitigate the negative effects of the over-application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides as a sustainable approach for disease management and nutritional supplementation [38]. In addition, the labels of the biofertilizers and biological control agents that were provided included the organic mark, instructions for use, and benefits, which were thought to facilitate farmers’ understanding of the benefits of using the PGPR. Furthermore, the addition of organic fertilizers is recommended for the use of biological pesticides. Farmers who raise livestock tend to use distributed fertilizers and compost livestock manure, which is expected to have a synergistic effect. Therefore, reducing government subsidies for chemical fertilizers and pesticides and shifting to the use of biofertilizers would enable rice farmers in Karangasem Regency to both increase productivity and achieve sustainability. Moreover, the use of PGPR has the potential to increase food security, and improve the production of rice and chili in Karangasem Regency. Increased production of rice, the staple food in Karangasem Regency, supports the food availability aspect in the regency. Additionally, the increased production of chili, a specialty product, will lead to food security not only in Karangasem Regency but also in the entire province of Bali. Moreover, the increase in productivity is expected to lead to higher incomes for farmers.
However, the application of PGPR to food crops is beginning to be widely studied, but implementation in the field is very limited [21]. In addition, agricultural production has been based on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and PGPR that have performed well in experiments may not work in farmers’ fields [39]. Furthermore, the results of the effects of PGPR differ depending on the types of PGPR used and the cultivation conditions. Therefore, practical extension activities with high reproducibility in field experiments are required.
4.2. Sources of Information
To improve and maintain agricultural production in Indonesia, productivity must be increased using limited resources [40]. With the remarkable developments in agriculture in recent years, it is essential to obtain information on new materials, management, and cultivation techniques. However, access to information remains one of the most important issues in agricultural development because most farmers are aging and lack sufficient education [41]. Therefore, in Bali, which is becoming an information society, it is important to identify the information sources that support the improvement and maintenance of agricultural production.
Agricultural extension workers play an important role in promoting agricultural development in rural communities, providing information on climate change and climate impacts and teaching farmers to use new technologies to cope with climate impacts [22]. However, all farmers who were interviewed in this survey cited their previous experiences as their source of information about climate, and they consult their family members or neighboring farmers for information related to agricultural production (Figure 5). The cultivation techniques (machines and methods) used by Balinese farmers are simple and have been passed down from one generation to the next [42]. Farmers do not follow a cultivation manual faithfully, as they have become accustomed to certain agricultural practices [23]. Furthermore, technologies to cope with recent climate changes and environmental protection cannot be established based on one’s own experience, and it can sometimes be risky to introduce cultivar selection and cultivation techniques based solely on previous experience [20]. Therefore, the lack of climate information provided by agricultural extension workers is a challenge for supporting agricultural development. Takama et al. [22] also pointed out that a small percentage of agricultural extension workers have a bachelor’s degree, suggesting the importance of improving their capacity. The Department of Agriculture in Bali Province and Karangasem Regency regularly conducts technical training sessions for agricultural extension workers. However, the extension workers are responsible for slightly different cultivation environments and challenges in their respective areas, and they have different experiences, so their extension methods and effectiveness are likely to differ slightly. Therefore, it would be effective for further agricultural development to build and utilize a knowledge database that consolidates the failures and successes experienced by each extension worker. Using a knowledge database that consolidates a number of extension cases will improve the capacity of individual extension workers and enhance their ability to respond to farmers. Additionally, the aggregation and utilization of diffusion effects are considered important, especially in promoting adaptation measures to climate change and technologies such as PGPR, which have different effects in different growing environments.
This study was conducted in Karangasem Regency. Bali has a wide diversity of cultivation patterns that differ from region to region. Therefore, further research is needed in other provinces, as limiting factors and sources of information on cultivation may differ.
5. Conclusions
In this study, farmers in Karangasem Regency, Bali, were interviewed regarding their efforts to balance agricultural productivity and sustainability. The loss of yield in both rice and chili, the main crops in the regency, due to pests and diseases cannot be prevented by variety selection alone. Since the use of pesticides is essential to address pest infestation, environmentally safe pesticides have been proposed; moreover, biofertilizers and biological control agents have been actively promoted by the Karangasem Regency Government. Additionally, the increase in the productivity of rice and chili through the spread of PGPR will not only increase food security in Karangasem Regency but also lead to food security in Bali Province.
While all farmers obtain important information on agricultural production, such as fertilizers, pesticides, and cultivation techniques, from agricultural extension workers, the lack of information provided on climate is an important issue. To achieve increased productivity and sustainability in agriculture, it is crucial to develop reliable cultivation techniques and train extension workers to properly communicate them to farmers through the consolidation and utilization of extension cases.
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