Sustainability in Japan’s Agriculture: An Analysis of Current Approaches

By inergency On Jan 10, 2024

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1. Introduction

Agriculture, for a long time, was focused only on economic aspects and profitability. Several efforts were made to increase productivity, facilitate production, and avoid pests and diseases; however, their negative impacts were neglected [1]. In addition to the high economic cost of its maintenance, the excessive exploitation of the base of natural resources has led to increasing levels of soil degradation and depletion, water pollution, poisoning, and contamination of agricultural lands by pesticides, in addition to biodiversity loss [2], with human activities being considered the one that generates the greatest impact on biological diversity [3]. On the other hand, agricultural development policies that made the implementation of this technological model possible were directed at the modernization of large properties, further deepening inequalities and social exclusion in rural areas, especially in the case of family farmers [4].

The concept and idea of “sustainability” are well-known worldwide and are being utilized more frequently in all spheres of the economy. It is based on the understanding that all resources are limited, and that people may improve their methods [5].

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines the term “sustainable agriculture” as the agricultural practices associated with the management and protection of the natural resource base, along with institutional and technical guidance to ensure the attainment and ongoing fulfillment of human requirements for both current and future generations. Such sustainable development (agricultural, forestry, and fisheries) prevents environmental degradation, preserves soil, water, and animal and plant genetic resources, and is also technically sound, commercially feasible, and socially acceptable [6].

Regarding sustainability, Japan is a country in constant change and an example of a country that adopts measures to have a more sustainable society in agriculture, industry, and other sectors. Despite having a relatively small territory, in 2022, the country was considered the third-largest economy in the world [7]. Japan’s economy expanded quickly in the years after World War II [8], followed by the tremendous growth of the heavy chemical sector. However, this has caused intense industrial pollution. The environmental issues caused by this rapid growth included factors such as habitat destruction, air and water pollution, environmental disasters, and others. This has made society more concerned about the environment [9].

In Japan, the approaches currently used to achieve a more sustainable society through agriculture are reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides [10], increasing crop yields [11], developing disease-resistant crop varieties [12], and promoting alternative farming methods, such as organic and hydroponic farming [13]. In addition, the government promotes the conservation of biodiversity as well as the mitigation of the effects of climate change on agriculture [14]. The government also supports farmers who are willing to adopt sustainable practices and promotes sustainable agriculture as a business model [15].

Japanese agriculture consists mostly of paddy fields [16], and as in other Asian countries, agriculture production is mainly managed by family farming businesses—more than 98% of agribusiness in the country is considered family businesses [17]. Knowing the importance of family farming for the food of Japan, where 40% of daily calories come from food produced nationally, as well as the fact that more than 50% of restaurants use domestically or locally produced foodstuffs [18,19], it is possible to observe the importance given by Japanese society to domestic production [20]. However, even with this profile, it is possible to recognize that agriculture can cause environmental damage and family farmers could be part of an important role in sustainable development [21].

This review was proposed to understand the concepts and practices carried out to achieve sustainable agriculture in Japan. To achieve this, statistical data and government documents published by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF) (Tokyo, Japan) and prefectures in Japan were used, providing results to highlight strategies to advance the understanding and implementation of sustainable agriculture. Recognizing the underexplored nature of agricultural data specific to Japan, a nation characterized by its unique agricultural landscape, population, and economy, analysis of these data has yielded invaluable insights.

This study stands out in offering an analysis of the implemented strategies that serves to illuminate key strategies to advance the understanding and practical implementation of sustainable agriculture in Japan, as well as exploring data that are often difficult to access and discuss. Furthermore, we explore the financial, social, and environmental implications of sustainable practices, providing a comprehensive overview of the impact of these measures in the Japanese context. Unlike previous studies that have focused on isolated aspects of sustainable agriculture, this study approaches the topic in a more comprehensive way, bringing intersections between farmers’ adherence to sustainable methods, government incentives, the challenges faced by farmers, and the results obtained. By clarifying and organizing this crucial knowledge, this review significantly contributes to the ongoing discourse on sustainable agricultural practices and provides a solid foundation for developing and implementing strategies that can propel Japan and other nations toward a more sustainable agricultural future that is environmentally responsible. In this way, our study not only fills knowledge gaps but also offers a comprehensive and original perspective on the dynamics and challenges of transitioning to sustainable agricultural practices in an advanced and densely populated economy such as Japan.

2. The Current State of Farming in Japan and Environmental Concerns

In Japan, agriculture is traditionally characterized by small-scale operations that rely heavily on manual labor for individual plant management [22]. The proportion of other agricultural land was most strongly determined by topographical factors in total [23], making farmland approximately 12% of the land [24,25]. Agricultural activities in Japan vary widely based on several factors, mainly related to the specific social and geographic characteristics of each region, which will determine the commodities produced and the business model implemented.

However, Japan is still very dependent on the use of chemicals and, therefore, the government set a target of reducing 50% pesticide use and 30% chemical fertilizer use by 2050 [26].

Japan’s total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have been decreasing since 2013 [27]; however, it still ranks fifth among the countries that emit the most CO₂ in the world [27]. Most of the emissions come from energy production, but even though the emissions from agriculture are one of the lowest among the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), agriculture in Japan is still part of one of the categories that emits the most GHG. This sector was responsible for more than 75% of total methane emissions and 50% of nitrous oxide emissions in the country in 2020 [28].

Among the countries that have similar agriculture to Japan in terms of crop production per hectare and in the economy [29,30,31], Japan is extremely efficient in using available land (Figure 1A), but to generate this efficiency, it produces high amounts of GHG (Figure 1B). Considering France, Germany, the Republic of Korea, and the United Kingdom, Japan reports emissions of 6.88 kg ha⁻¹, which is surpassed only by Korea at 12.37 kg ha⁻¹. France, Germany, and the United Kingdom record significantly lower emissions, with 2.37 kg ha⁻¹, 3.15 kg ha⁻¹, and 2.55 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. Though the results seem more promising in these countries, it is important to note that the countries mentioned here have different approaches to reducing GHG emissions given that the European Commission established the Green Deal in Europe, which is a set of strategies in various fields, including agriculture, to mitigate environmental impacts and reduce emissions and pollution. This underscores the need for similar measures in other countries until they reach a global scale [32].

The relatively high emissions in agriculture in Japan can be explained beyond the limitation of agricultural space, but mainly due to agricultural practices that involve the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers in large quantities, which are responsible for the carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide emissions (Figure 2A) [33]. Another cause is related to rice cultivation. Rice cultivation in flooded fields is a traditional practice in Japan, which requires intensive water use and consequently contributes to high methane emissions (Figure 2B) [34,35]. Furthermore, methane emissions in Japan can also be attributed to the practice of livestock farming, especially due to the enteric fermentation that occurs in the digestive systems of these animals [36]. These emissions from manure management contribute 6.8% methane and 11.8% nitrous oxide to the total agricultural GHG emissions [37]. Carbon dioxide in agriculture is more associated with the use of agricultural machinery and the transport of products (Figure 2C).

Figure 1.
Comparison data between the agricultural land use and the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) from agriculture in countries with similar agricultural production per hectare. (A) Agricultural land use in 2020 (1000 ha) from Japan, France, Germany, the Republic of Korea, and the United Kingdom [38,39]. (B) GHG emissions from agriculture in 2020 in million tons of CO₂ from Japan, France, Germany, the Republic of Korea, and the United Kingdom [40].

Figure 2.
GHG emissions in Japan’s agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sectors in 2020 per 1000 t-CO₂. (A) Nitrous oxide emissions, (B) methane emissions, and (C) carbon dioxide emissions. Adapted from MAFF [41].

Small farm sizes, restricted productivity, and the presence of part-time farmers seeking to compensate for the restrictions of insufficient land and labor availability all contribute to the misuse of chemical inputs in agriculture [42]. In the latest FAO pesticide use report (2022), in 2020, the top countries for pesticides used per area of cropland were Saint Lucia (20 kg/ha), the Maldives (17 kg/ha), Oman (16 kg/ha), Israel (15 kg/ha), Ecuador (14 kg/ha), Seychelles (12 kg/ha), Japan (12 kg/ha), Belize (11 kg/ha), The Netherlands (11 kg/ha), and the Republic of Korea (10 kg/ha) (Figure 3) [43].

Water management and conservation face a constant challenge for sustainable agriculture in Japan. As most of the Japanese agricultural production consists of irrigated paddy fields, it is responsible for consuming approximately 65% of the country’s water resources [44,45]. Paddy fields also contribute to the pesticide contamination of Japanese rivers [46]. The frequent use of agrochemicals, such as pesticides and fertilizers, to increase agricultural productivity can result in the runoff of these substances into water bodies, compromising water quality. This type of pollution is called non-point-source pollution [47]. In a study realized in 2000, agriculture was responsible for around 11–17% of pollution in four major lakes in Japan (Lake Biwa, Lake Kasumigaura, Lake Inbanuma, and Lake Suwa) [48,49].

Addressing the social aspects of farming in Japan, another worrying factor in Japanese society, which is also reflected in agriculture, is the population’s aging and shrinking. By the year 2036, a third of the population will be over 65 years old [50], which becomes worrying along with the low birth rate [51], low wages [52], and little interest in work in agriculture [53]. From 2002 to 2021, the number of people engaged in activities related to the field decreased by approximately 46% (Figure 4).

With the lack of interest of young people in jobs related to agriculture, the average age of rural workers reached 67.9 in 2021 and 68.4 in 2022 [54]. A study carried out in Sapporo, Hokkaido Prefecture, one of the prefectures with the highest intensity of agricultural activity, showed that 76% of high school students would like to pursue a career in areas related to science and technology [53].

Even with the decrease in the number of workers in agriculture, which was also reflected in the decrease in the number of workers below 65, the average from 2015 to 2016 was a decrease of 4.9% in the number of workers, while that of workers aged over 65 was 3.9% (Figure 5), demonstrating that young people are not getting involved in manual work in agriculture. The weakening of the agricultural workforce, especially among young people, highlights the urgent need for strategies that not only encourage the transition to sustainable agricultural practices but also address demographic decline in rural areas. The aging population also creates another problem through the significant increase in abandoned land, representing 45% of land abandonment in 2003 and 51% in 2009 [49,55]. A study realized by Zollet and Maharjan [56] shows how sustainable farming can collaborate to mitigate the issue. The study also reinforces the importance of innovative and supportive policies to not only attract new farmers but also revitalize neglected agricultural areas. Promoting strategic groupings, such as the organic clusters suggested in the study, can not only serve as a catalyst for the adoption of sustainable practices but also as a practical solution to revitalize vacant land, aligning with the urgent needs of Japanese agriculture in an evolving demographic landscape. There is also a trend of young people interested in organic agriculture moving from urban areas to rural regions [57]. Between 2009 and 2017, the amount of uncertified organic agriculture is predicted to have expanded by 43%, compared to a 19% increase in certified organic farming [58], demonstrating that the government could invest in policies aimed at these people to increase sustainable production in the country, focusing on promoting education and paying incentives.

3. Exploring Applied Techniques of Sustainable Agriculture in Japan

Sustainable agriculture is strictly related to organic agriculture, which in Japan has more than 80 years of history [59], with different methods, such as the Fukuoka method, or natural farming, which consists of not interfering in any way with nature [60], which originated in the early 20th century. The more recent Teikei method from the 1970s is a method of farming where organic food producers exchange products with consumers in exchange for support and sustainability of their farm production to restore the ecological and agricultural landscapes [61].

Satoyama farming is a significant traditional agro-ecological friendly agricultural practice utilized in Japan. Satoyama is a terrain made up of agricultural and forestry villages, as well as semi-natural regions surrounding them [62]. This entails a multi-layered agricultural system in which crops are farmed alongside forestry, fishing, and animal production. This method promotes biodiversity while reducing the demand for artificial fertilizers and pesticides [63]. In Sehra and MacMillan’s [64] study, they demonstrated that consumers were willing to pay more for rice produced in these regions, demonstrating that through raising awareness among the population, it is possible to make sustainable agriculture appealing to consumers.

Another case similar to Satoyama farms can be found in the traditional agroforestry system in Miyagi and Iwate Prefectures. This system is called “igune” practice, which entails the planting of small forests with a diverse range of tree species on the northwestern side of farmhouses, sometimes situated amidst lowland rice paddies. The primary purpose of this practice is to shield the houses from strong winds and winter cold; however, some fruit trees are also planted and used for consumption and sale [65].

Another method used in Japan is no-till farming, which involves minimal disturbance of the soil. This helps to maintain the soil structure and fertility and reduces the need for heavy machinery [66]. In some studies, realized in paddy fields, no-till farming can help as a cost-effective strategy to increase carbon sequestration [67], increase the presence of oligochaetes, and suppress weeds [68].

Additionally, due to the scarcity of arable land, Japan has also invested in vertical farms [69]. Vertical farming is a method of agriculture that involves growing crops on a large scale in tall buildings. This approach allows for rapid growth and controlled production by manipulating environmental factors and nutrient solutions using hydroponics [70,71,72]. Research suggests that expanding the scale of vertical farming has the potential to decrease pollution caused by excessive nitrogen and phosphorus in aquatic environments, increase self-sufficiency at the local and national levels, and preserve water quality while conserving water resources [73].

4. Promoting and Supporting Sustainability in Agriculture and Farms in Japan

Agriculture in Japan faces some challenges, such as low productivity, heavy reliance on pesticides and chemical fertilizers, commodity-specific support, and restrictive border measures. Thus, for the construction of environmentally friendly agriculture, three prerequisites must be met: the possibility of improving the environment [30], farmers’ ability to enhance their income [74], and the ability of consumers to accept products from eco-farmers’ production [74].

In order to lessen their environmental impact, farmers and farmer groups must cultivate healthier soil, use fewer chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals, and emit fewer greenhouse gases (GHGs). To achieve this, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF) in Japan has developed the “Measures for Achievement of Decarbonization and Resilience with Innovation (MeaDRI)” plan [26]. This strategy aims to enhance the productivity potential and sustainability of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and food industries in Japan through innovation.

This MeaDRI plan includes the creation of model regions for sustainable food supply chains and organic agricultural clusters, the development and verification of practical applications for decarbonization technologies and pelletized compost, and the strengthening of extension services to help farmers transition from traditional farming to environmentally friendly agriculture and energy-efficient smart greenhouses. Additionally, MAFF plans to set up a system to certify these farmers and farmer groups, and 11.7 billion yen (USD 103 million) has been allocated from the 2021 supplementary budget and 2022 annual budget to MAFF to carry out the MeaDRI [75]. As part of this plan, they also plan to promote the marketing and sales of organic goods, including their usage in school lunch programs, promoting the transition to Integrated Pest Management systems, and establishing cyclical energy-generating systems, such as solar energy greenhouses and wood biomass energy generation utilizing discarded materials, such as rice straw, rice hulls, bamboo, and others. Additionally, “Direct Payment for Environment Conservation Agriculture,” which offers assistance payments to producers who cut their usage of chemical fertilizers and chemically synthesized agricultural chemicals by 50%, is still funded by MAFF, in addition to the new budget for MeaDRI. In JFY2022, the program’s funding grew to 2.9 billion yen (USD 25.4 million) [75]. In 2000, Japan also launched a direct payment program to communities in mountainous areas to prevent land abandonment, called The Direct Payment to Farmers in Hilly and Mountainous Areas, which expanded to 7933 km² in 2018 [76,77].

The fundamental goals of sustainable agriculture are the management of water resources and other natural resources, the prevention of soil erosion, the improvement of rural lifestyles, the expansion of local biodiversity, and most importantly, the reduction of pesticide use [78].

Japanese Agricultural Standards (JAS) for organically grown plants and organic processed foods of plant origin were first established in 2000, along with the Codex Alimentarius Commission’s adoption of the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labeling, and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods [79].

The MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries) has some measures related to SDGs and sustainable agriculture. They promote direct payments for environmentally friendly farmers that use measures to prevent global warming, preserve biodiversity, and reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides by more than 50%. The payments were made depending on the measures adopted [80,81]. MAFF is actively supporting local farmers’ collaborative efforts to develop Organic Farming Hubs around the country, which will serve as a platform for candidates interested in delving into organic farming. The project promotes group business operations by encouraging seasoned organic farmers and newcomers from non-organic backgrounds to share technical and managerial expertise. The hubs want to work with local governments, restaurants, and supermarkets to provide extensive training while maintaining a consistent supply of organic products. Additionally, these centers focus on connecting organic producers, advertising agricultural goods to buyers and customers, and building training farms for new farmers [58]. Furthermore, some prefectures have their own payment schemes for sustainable farmers, as in the case of reducing the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers by 50% [49].

In the case of organic agriculture, they have a guideline called “Japanese Agricultural Standard for Organic Plants,” where they classify organic products as follows: The fields need measures to prevent prohibited substances from flowing from surrounding areas. Chemical synthetic fertilizers or substances shall not be used on the field for at least two years, and recombinant DNA technology or ionizing radiation could not be applied [82,83].

The government also promotes education for farmers by giving classes on Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) to teach management activities in the agricultural production process to ensure various components of sustainability, including food safety, environmental conservation, and worker safety [84,85].

The eco-farmer concept was based on the Law for the Promotion of the Introduction of Highly Sustainable Agricultural Production Methods (Law No. 110 of 28 July 1999) [86]. The law defined sustainable methods of agricultural production. Provincial governors formulate guidelines for the introduction of highly sustainable agricultural production methods, and farmers create a plan to introduce a highly sustainable agricultural production system; thereafter, provincial governors approve introduction plans based on guidelines, and approved farmers were certified by the prefecture where it was applied and had a series of benefits [87,88]. The activities carried out by eco-farmers considered sustainable by the government are the application of compost, planting cover crops, interplant living mulch, pursuing organic farming, providing habitats for aquatic organisms, no-tillage, sod culture, extending mid-season drainage, and autumn plowing. The activities must be carried out in conjunction with the reduction of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, and each activity generates a different payment per hectare [89,90].

Since the beginning of the creation of this measure, the number of certifications grew exponentially until 2012, indicating good acceptance by farmers and an interest in seeking certification. After 2012, the numbers began to decline until 2020 (Figure 6); however, this may be due to the five-year durability of the certification, and as pointed out by MAFF, the main reason for not applying for or renewing eco-farmer certification is that eco-farmer certification does not lead to a monetary advantage [91]. Additionally, the number of certifications in 2020 was not homogeneous across the country, with the prefectures with the most applications being Fukui, Fukushima, and Tokyo, with the fewest certifications (Figure 7). In Maharjan et al.’s [92] study, they demonstrated that Japan also has low ECA (environmental conservation agriculture) utilization, and they observed that in 31 out of 47 prefectures (65.9%), there was a decline in ECA adoption from 2016 to 2020.

Eco-farmer certification was stopped in Japan after 2022 following changes in the law. In the future, they will move to a new certification system based on the “Green Food System Act,” but the details have not yet been announced by the government [93].

Table 1, which describes the distribution of management entities by the type of initiative in Environmental Conservation Agriculture in Japan, with data from the Agriculture and Forestry Census for 2010 [94], 2015 [95], and 2020 [96,97], reveals a varied dynamic in rural communities. In 2020, they introduced the term Environmental Protection and Nature Conservation, which is defined as activities related to environmental protection, such as cleaning, collecting empty cans, mowing grass, and planting flowers in rural communities [96,98]. In the 2020 agricultural census of the 114,843 rural communities, 96.1% responded that they adhered to the practices. Local resource protection activities are defined as activities aimed at preserving, maintaining, and improving shared local resources, mainly by residents. This includes joint actions by several households among residents to preserve biodiversity, remove introduced species from reservoirs, clean agricultural lands, and clean canals [98]. With these actions, there was an increase of almost 9.9% from the 2010 census to the 2015 census and 8% from the 2015 census to 2020, totaling almost an 18% increase in protection activities.

Even with some policies adopted, the area of organic cultivation in Japan in 2018 was 24,000 ha, or 0.5% of the total cultivated land area [99]. In the 2015 agricultural and forestry census, they collected data on the number of management entities that operate in environmental conservation agriculture by the type of initiative [100]. They conducted an interview with 466,460 entities, questioning the practices adopted by them, such as efforts to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers, efforts to reduce pesticide use, and soil preparation by composting, whereby most farmers are adopting most of the practices. However, when compared to data collected on the same topic in the 2010 agriculture and forestry census [100], the percentage of entities that adopted the practices in 2015 decreased by 10% in efforts to reduce from chemical fertilizer use, 3% in efforts to reduce pesticide use, and 9% in soil preparation through composting (Table 2). This demonstrates that there is still a need for education, incentives, and reinforcements for the practices to be adopted and disseminated; otherwise, they may no longer be applied.

In the 2020 census of agriculture and forestry [101], they did not carry out the same survey, they only quantified the number of entities that practiced organic agriculture, and of the total of 1,075,705 quantified entities, only 69,309 were engaged in organic agriculture, demonstrating a great potential for expansion that could again be encouraged by the government.

In addition to the measures presented, although there are discussions within the government on the subject, there is no specific measure carried out by the government specifically addressing agroforestry topics, with most measures being related to sustainable agriculture.

Outcomes of Sustainable Agricultural Practice Promotion in Japan

The results of the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices in Japan show the country’s ongoing search for an agricultural system that minimizes negative environmental impacts and promotes food security. Several measures were implemented with the goal of making Japanese agriculture more environmentally friendly and efficient.

In 2021, the area dedicated to organic farming grew to 26,600 hectares, representing 0.6% of the overall farmland area of 4.3 million hectares [102].

In 2019, the MAFF [103] will release a final assessment of the results of direct payments to eco-agriculturists (Table 3). Various activities, such as compost application, autumn plowing, and the use of cover crops, have shown a significant reduction in GHG emissions in this study. This suggests that these practices may be effective in reducing agriculture’s environmental impact. The data indicate that activities such as organic compost application, fall plowing, and the use of cover crops have resulted in significant reductions in GHG emissions. These findings suggest the effectiveness of the application of these techniques in mitigating the environmental impacts of conventional agriculture, suggesting that encouraging the techniques has an effective environmental impact.

Another important element is the quantity of land used in each activity and the overall decrease in GHG emissions. Composting, for example, is a common and easy activity that spans a vast area and results in a significant reduction in emissions [104,105]. Other methods, such as no-till farming and growing cover crops, have a smaller area of activity than others; however, they contribute considerably to lowering emissions [106]. This shows that these approaches can be extremely beneficial, even in small areas, highlighting the importance of apparently simple yet widespread activities in reducing environmental impacts. Furthermore, other practices that cover smaller areas are equally important in reducing emissions, indicating that more specific strategies also play a relevant role in environmental sustainability.

The data also emphasize the wide range of activities advocated by sustainable agriculture, from composting and cover crops to off-season drainage and organic production. Farmers may select strategies that best fit their requirements and local conditions because of the range of options available.

While these methods have been proven to reduce GHG emissions, there is a need to expand and improve techniques and results while continuing to encourage sustainable agriculture so that the impacts on climate change are significant. To achieve this, farmers must continue to receive education and incentives from the government and companies. Furthermore, these results demonstrate the need for continued government policies that encourage sustainable agriculture.

However, it is essential to highlight that, despite the evident environmental benefits, some challenges are encountered by farmers when adopting these practices, mainly when it comes to reducing productivity and, consequently, the economic aspect. This highlights the need to address not only environmental impacts but also farmers’ economic concerns when transitioning to more sustainable methods.

Through the initiative to create MAFF organic agriculture hubs, an example is the hub in Isumi City, Chiba Prefecture, where experienced organic farmers have been educating students and developing a supply chain for organic rice and vegetables for school lunches since 2018. The overarching objective involves environmental education through farming experiences, as well as the continual extension of organic agricultural acreage. Through this project, they observed an increase of three times in organic vegetable production and almost one time in organic rice production [107,108].

In the report carried out in 2020 on the Evaluation of the Direct Payment Subsidy to Agriculture for Environmental Conservation [109], in addition to the environmental consequences analyzed and presented in Table 3, other notable results arising from the implementation of incentives for sustainable agriculture are also discussed. Through targeted financial support, there has been a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, estimated at more than 150,000 tons per year. Furthermore, sustainable actions positively impacted biodiversity, especially in rice cultivation, by promoting the conservation of biological diversity and beneficially influencing the areas surrounding the cultivation zones. A study was also carried out to quantify animal and biodiversity indicator organisms. An increase in biodiversity indicator organisms was noted; in rice fields, the average increase was 1 point in fields that implemented sustainable agriculture techniques and were part of the program payment; in other fields, such as soybeans and tea, despite the small number of lands analyzed, this trend was also observed.

Sustainable agriculture practices have also been shown to contribute to the conservation of water quality, with the use of slow-release fertilizers resulting in an approximately 19.6% decrease in the nitrogen load running off into water bodies, such as Lake Biwa. These sustainable actions not only addressed climate issues but also positively impacted biodiversity, water quality, and other environmental aspects, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals established by the UN.

In this evaluation, testimonies were also collected from different regions of Japan, highlighting the additional effects generated by environmentally sustainable agriculture initiatives through the direct payment system. In Hokkaido province, an increase in farmers’ interest in adopting sustainable practices was noted, driven by the establishment of the direct payment system, which served as an incentive to obtain organic JAS certification. In Akita, the implementation of the direct payment program encouraged the exchange of technical knowledge among farmers, contributing to improvements in cultivation techniques. In Yamagata, the use of direct subsidies was associated with practices that prioritized the conservation of biodiversity and the prevention of global warming, resulting in an organized management approach that aimed to preserve the environment, in addition to valuing the rice produced. These testimonials demonstrate the variety of strategies and benefits associated with sustainable agriculture in different regions, from encouraging the reduction of pesticides and chemical fertilizers to valuing agricultural products with specific seals and brands, highlighting progress in conserving the environment and promoting sustainable agricultural practices across the country.

The incentive promoted by the government also promotes other impacts, not only related to the environment but also in relation to social relations and the economy. However, few studies were carried out at the national level, with most studies being local, focusing on cities or small regions. Regarding the economic impacts on farmers, some small-scale studies point to positive results from incentives. In the study by Katada and Tanaka [110], in the city of Sado, Niigata Prefecture, the local farmers produce rice with low use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, with the aim of increasing the reintegration of local species into paddy field habitats. Through this research, it was demonstrated that subsidies paid by the government were efficient in maintaining sustainable farmers’ profits and often increased their income, and consumers were also willing to pay a higher price knowing that the product is sustainable and protects local fauna, which would mean that over time, the government would not need to subsidize costs of production. In another study carried out in 2015 by Kubawara [111], in the same city, it was shown that there was an increase in rice cultivation land with fewer chemical supplies, the agri-environmental payment program implemented by the local government showed high adherence, and the area of farmers’ production reduced 50% of chemical usage grown around 400 ha in 2008 to more than 1200 ha in 2013. It was also demonstrated that the subsidy program implemented in the city compensated for the decrease in productivity; however, in specific cases of a loss of productivity, it may not be enough. Before 2006, the prefecture had its own payment scheme for agri-environmental farmers, but most of the programs were integrated with the national scheme in 2006 [49].

The comparative study between environmentally friendly agriculture and conventional rice cultivation in Shiga Prefecture, carried out by Santos and Shimoda [112], found that farmers who adopted environmentally friendly practices received direct subsidies (JPY 80,000.00 per hectare), resulting in a higher income, and the change in net income due to the farming method amounted to JPY 25,822.40. Although production costs were higher for eco-friendly farmers, the subsidy made up for this difference, keeping income positive and indicating that eco-friendly farming was more profitable than conventional farming, considering the effect of the direct subsidy alone.

However, two problems are highlighted in the presented research: the low interest of farmers and the lack of public knowledge, demonstrating that a barrier to be overcome is the lack of communication and marketing about the benefits of production and consumption of sustainable products.

The lack of consumer attention to sustainable agriculture can be highlighted in the study by Simona and Lall [113], where sellers and consumers at an organic fair in Hiroshima Prefecture were interviewed. In the case of sellers, the motivations were clear: to create a bond with consumers and promote more organic products. However, in this research, from the point of view of visitors and consumers, the answers to the reason for participation are mixed, with only 22% of participants purchasing organic products frequently, demonstrating a certain lack of interest in the issue of sustainability that the event can bring. Additionally, the lack of interest in converting from conventional farming to sustainable farming was visible, as only 0.5% of the land is used for organic farming [114].

Understanding that the problem with the lack of interest in sustainable production is due to financial reasons and that this is a direct consequence of consumer consumption, the government launched the “AFFF-no-wa 2030—for Sustainability of Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries, and Food” project in 2020 [114,115,116], aiming to connect the community, farmers, and companies, as well as encourage awareness through events, meetings, awards, pamphlets, advertisements, and other sources to stimulate this awareness between consumers and producers.

From these observations, there is a crucial distinction between community participation and social awareness in the context of sustainable agriculture in Japan, examining how local communities are involved and engaged in the promotion and adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, an important driving factor for the change. Collaborative initiatives between producers, consumers, and local authorities were identified, revealing the importance of community support and awareness to drive the transition to agricultural sustainability.

5. Aligning Sustainable Agriculture with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) defined by the United Nations in 2015 are a testament to the importance of sustainable development across all countries. These goals, which apply to all countries that are members of the UN and have committed to their implementation, aim to be achieved by 2030. The 17 global sustainable development goals (SDGs) are: (SDG 1) eradicate poverty; (SDG 2) end hunger; (SDG 3) good health and well-being; (SDG 4) education of quality; (SDG 5) gender equality; (SDG 6) clean water and sanitation; (SDG 7) affordable and clean energy; (SDG 8) decent work and economic growth; (SDG 9) industry, innovation, and infrastructure; (SDG 10) reduce inequalities; (SDG 11) sustainable cities and communities; (SDG 12) responsible consumption and production; (SDG 13) combat climate change; (SDG 14) preserve marine biodiversity; (SDG 15) terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity; (SDG 16) peace and justice institutions; (SDG 17) partnerships [117]. In an evaluation of these 17 SDGs, one can see the scope of these objectives, thus attesting to their complexity and possible difficulty in their understanding and execution, given that the cultures of these countries also tend to interfere in this matter, taking into consideration the cultural, social, and economic factors of these countries, which tend to be different.

Sustainable agriculture can align with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in various ways. Focusing on Japan, sustainable agriculture can help and align with some points of the SDGs, such as increasing food production and improving food security, by using sustainable practices, such as crop rotation, crop diversity, and agroforestry (SDG 2). It can also promote healthy diets by producing nutrient-rich foods, reducing the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers (SDG 3), providing opportunities for education and training for farmers and rural communities, and promoting sustainable practices and knowledge transfer (SDG 4). Additionally, sustainable agriculture can promote equal access to land, resources, and education for men and women and empower women farmers (SDG 5), which helps in the objectives of reducing gender inequality in the country. It can also reduce water pollution and improve water management, by using sustainable irrigation practices and reducing the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers (SDG 6). Moreover, it can provide decent work and income for farmers, particularly in rural areas, and promote economic growth (SDG 8). Furthermore, sustainable agriculture can promote innovation and the use of technology, such as precision farming, to increase productivity and reduce the environmental impact of farming (SDG 9), and promote access to land, resources, and education, and reduce inequalities between urban and rural areas (SDG 10). Finally, it can promote sustainable rural development and improve the livability of rural communities (SDG 11), and through the popularization of sustainable agriculture, it can make the population aware of consumption as well as re-educate entrepreneurs about the problems of production without environmental awareness (SDG 12). Most importantly, it can help combat climate change (SDG 14). Looking at governments and farmers from across the spectrum, it can help in the formation of new partnerships with countries to learn and disseminate information on the practices applied in the country (SDG 17).

Other approaches are also used in Japan in combination with different farming styles, such as organic farming, as in the case of precision agriculture. This method is widely studied and encouraged in Japan because it helps to increase profitability and attract more people, especially young people, to become farmers, as it integrates the use of databases and technologies to facilitate and reduce the intensity of manual labor [118].

Implementing Sustainable Development Goals in Japan’s Agriculture: The Government’s Efforts toward Sustainable Agriculture

The Japanese government has made significant efforts to align its agricultural policies with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In 2005, Japan developed the Basic Plan on Food, Agriculture, and Rural Areas, which aims to increase farm size to 15 hectares [119]. This plan focuses on promoting sustainable agricultural practices, such as reducing chemical use, promoting organic farming, and increasing the use of renewable energy sources in agriculture. The government has also implemented programs such as the “Direct Payment Subsidy for Agriculture that Preserves the Environment” initiative, which provides funding for farmers to adopt sustainable practices and improve their competitiveness [103]. By 2030, the Japanese government wants to increase the area under organic agriculture to 63,000 hectares, and by 2050, it wants to account for 25% of all agricultural land [102].

In terms of SDG 1 and SDG 8, the government’s efforts have aimed to improve the income and working conditions of farmers. For SDG 2, the government has focused on increasing food production and improving food security through sustainable agricultural practices. In terms of SDG 3, the government has emphasized the importance of producing healthy and safe food through sustainable farming practices. Japan’s efforts to promote sustainable agricultural practices also align with SDG 12, as it aims to reduce the environmental impact of farming and promote more sustainable production and consumption.

In line with the SDGs, in the agriculture sector, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries released 2050 targets for its “Green Food System Strategy” or “Measures for Achievement of Decarbonization and Resilience with Innovation (MeaDRI)” [26]. This proposes GHG reductions with zero CO₂ emissions in Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries by 2050; establishment of electrification and hydrogeneration technologies for agricultural machinery and fishing vessels by 2040; to complete the transition to fossil-fuel-free horticultural facilities by 2050, and utilization of renewable energy implementation in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries villages, together with the expansion of renewable energy in Japan, for environment conservation by the year 2050. The targets are a 50% reduction in risk-weighted use of chemical pesticides by dissemination of the Integrated Pest Management and newly developed alternatives, a 30% reduction in chemical fertilizer use, and an increase in organic farming to 25% of farmland [26]. Furthermore, in July 2022, a new act, “Promotion of Environmental Burden Reduction Activities for the Establishment of Environmentally Harmonized Food Systems,” was enforced to promote this strategy.

In the food industry, the targets are to decrease by half the business-derived food loss, increase the labor productivity of food manufacturers, reduce the ratio of costs to sales by 10%, and encourage the food companies to analyze the sustainability of imported raw materials. In forestry, by 2050, they propose to increase the ratio of fast-growing trees to forestry seedlings to 90% and establish high-rise wooden structural technologies and maximize carbon storage by 2040. In fisheries, they propose to recover the fish catch to the same levels as in 2010 by 2030, 100% of artificial seedling usage in aquaculture of Japanese eels and Bluefin tuna, and 100% compound feed use in aquaculture by 2050 [120].

6. Research and Development for Sustainable Agriculture in Japan

Science is dramatically changing the way scientists understand the structure and function of biological systems. The knowledge revolution thus brought about is a science that far outweighs the economic impact on agriculture and food. At the beginning of the emergence of biotechnology and its products, the authors did not believe in their potential to align with sustainable agriculture [121,122], and recombinant DNA technologies were considered unacceptable in organic production [123]. Nowadays, however, it is known that biotechnology has a great role in building a more sustainable society [124], enhancing crop resilience, reducing chemical inputs, and improving resource efficiency [125]. It is important to emphasize that contemporary biotechnological advancements provide sustainable solutions in plant development, such as the CRISPR-Cas technology, that do not necessarily require the insertion of external genes into the plant genome [126].

Many biotech products have already been developed in Japan, the most recent being a genome-edited tomato to produce high levels of ɣ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which was developed by Sanatech Seed using CRISPR-Cas technology [127]. Annually, Japan imports roughly 15 million metric tons of corn, 3 million metric tons of soybeans, and 2.4 million metric tons of canola from all over the world, most of which is genetically modified. In addition, Japan imports a large number of processed foods containing biotechnology-derived substances [128]. Notably, Japan is a major importer and consumer of crops derived from biotechnology; however, domestic production remains extremely limited, raising the question of the reason for this lack of use and internal production of biotechnological products by farmers that could lead to an increase in production and, consequently, income, increased quality of new products, and access to new markets [129].

It is expected that the country, in addition to being an important exporter of raw materials, will become the protagonist of a new world economy based on the sustainable use of biodiversity and its derived resources, adding value to the different productive sectors [14,130].

Different products used by society have their sources in national biodiversity. They are foods, fibers, pharmaceuticals, chemical items, and natural and essential oils, among others [131]. The generation of high-value-added products from biodiversity is directly related to the intensive use of knowledge and a high technological level [132,133]. This fact indicates that the use of biotechnology is a viable option and a fundamental tool for sustainable use and value addition. The use of biotechnology implies the collection of a few organisms or part of them as a source of raw material for the prospection and production of new biomolecules, thus providing an additional and effective strategy for the conservation of the genetic diversity of the environment [133,134,135].

Many technologies were developed by institutes in Japan, with emphasis on the NARO institute, which created a database named WAGRI on each process in the food production chain that is analyzed by artificial intelligence and proposes ways to improve the system, increasing productivity and reducing waste and costs [136]. Another example is the development of the first-ever pellet compost in Niigata Prefecture, with the aim of using a compound of small and less fragile pellets to reduce the personnel and working hours required [114].

Based on the report released by the Japan Science and Technology Agency [137], through the Moonshot development program, several technologies are currently being developed, including biofertilizers and pesticides to improve the efficiency of chemical pesticides and reduce their use, biogeochemical models to better understand the interaction of plants with the environment and the plants’ necessities, and automation of agriculture using drones and other machinery.

Despite the ongoing development of various technologies, there is a need for changes in how these innovations are effectively conveyed to sustainable farmers and consumers. Persistent barriers, misinformation, and a limited understanding of biotechnological products remain challenges, as highlighted by the USDA in 2022, which reported that Japanese farmers refrain from cultivating genetically engineered foods. Furthermore, as mentioned, Japan continues to be a large importer of food. For this reason, the incorporation of new technologies can help the country become more self-sufficient, mainly by helping sustainable farmers increase the efficiency of their production. Additionally, some newly approved products in Japan are categorized as non-genetically engineered (non-GE) [138]. This situation underscores a communication gap between the public and private sectors and Japanese farmers.

7. Sustainable Agriculture and Its Technical and Social Limits

It is important to note that discussing the perception of rural producers on sustainable development is crucial to understanding and identifying the barriers, background, and consequences of sustainable development in farming. However, achieving sustainable agriculture proves to be a challenge due to the heterogeneous nature of interventions, variables, and elements that need to be prioritized. It is important to understand that when interfering with a variable, element, or production line within a system, it can have an impact on the whole system [139,140,141].

Despite the challenges of understanding how to intervene in these systems, some agents have demonstrated a general and discursive understanding of how to approach sustainable agriculture. However, there is still a need for greater theoretical and practical information about the functioning of these systems [142]. The lack of adequate and sufficient training and theoretical–practical capacity for technicians has led to a lack of structure in the theoretical framework of sustainable agriculture, resulting in a gap in understanding how to turn principles into action [143,144].

Furthermore, farmers encounter barriers to converting from conventional agriculture to sustainable agriculture. In a study carried out by Ishikawa City in 2010 [145], the main barriers cited for this conversion are the difficulty of increasing production, the need for intense work, and pest and weed control. Additionally, as reported by Uenishi [146], rice farmers reported that in addition to the decrease in production discouraging them from converting techniques, the difficulty in meeting the requirements and the difficulty in requesting eco-farmer status also prevented them from becoming more interested in the practices.

When it comes to basic technologies for sustainable agriculture, two main obstacles are often encountered. The first obstacle is the lack of proper integration of technologies, which are known and tested through scientific research, into production systems due to a lack of appropriate technological diffusion, communication, and integration between research and rural extension. The second obstacle is the difficulty in gaining a deeper understanding of agricultural systems, or the lack of clarity about their dynamics [147,148].

Continuing to focus on problems of technical aspects, another reason for low adherence to sustainable agriculture by farmers may be related to monetary issues. In the study carried out by Hayashi et al. [149], it was demonstrated that rice grown organically reduced its yield to 4.97 t/ha, while rice grown conventionally had a yield of 5.96 t/ha. In another study by Masuda [150], even considering the direct payment program for environmentally friendly farmers, the crop income was higher for all rice varieties of the conventional method of cultivation, in comparison with the environmentally friendly rice. The same issue was presented in other countries’ studies [151,152,153]. However, this is a controversial topic since there are studies that show greater profitability of organic products [154], but this is still a warning, demonstrating that the financial factor and lack of incentives can be decisive factors in the conversion from conventional agriculture to ecologically friendly agriculture.

While the Japanese government has implemented various initiatives and plans to promote sustainable agriculture, there are still limitations that need to be addressed. One of the main challenges is the aging population of farmers, which has led to a decrease in the number of farmers and in agricultural productivity [155], since there are still barriers to be overcome by young people to enter agriculture [156], such as access to land, capital markets, and knowledge, in addition to the high start-up costs [56]. In addition, there is a lack of understanding and awareness about sustainable agriculture among consumers, which has resulted in a lower demand for organic and locally produced foods [56,157]. Furthermore, the high cost of transitioning to sustainable agriculture practices can be a barrier for small and medium-sized farms [158,159].

Another problem to be highlighted is the lack of data on the impacts of the measures promoted by the government. Despite the Census of Agriculture and Forestry in Japan being carried out every five years, a national study has not yet been carried out on how the techniques have impacted the national economy and farmers, as well as environmental results. The majority of studies carried out end up being conducted by small-scale researchers, focusing on local communities, and being more specific about the topic addressed. Based on further studies on the subject, it is believed that the effectiveness of measures for decision-making and planning new measures can be assessed.

The challenges facing Japanese agriculture in its journey toward sustainability are multifaceted, including increasing pressure due to urbanization, soil degradation, and the difficulty of transitioning farmers to more sustainable techniques. However, the uniqueness of this study lies in the comprehensive analysis of government initiatives and innovative practices adopted by family farmers, highlighting not only obstacles but also emerging solutions and the resilience demonstrated by the country’s agricultural sector.

8. Conclusions

In recent years, agriculture has been the focus of sustainability actions, as it directly impacts the environment and, consequently, can be a reason for challenges for future generations. For this reason, researchers and politicians need to study and carry out certain actions. Discussions about agricultural sustainability in Japan are not recent. These discussions initially started with a global concern, focusing mainly on the government and the population. This discussion must continue to be carried out by government bodies, farmers, farmer entities, scientists and academics, consumers, and industry representatives. In the context of international organizations, the notion of sustainable development, which gains strength with the repercussions of the environmental issues, has been clearly guided by political issues of economic growth, which place it in a tense field of disputes. However, this concept of sustainability has not yet manifested itself clearly in our society. The government of Japan has been taking positions to encourage an increase in the number of farmers, together with sustainable practices; however, it faces several problems related to the territorial limitation, population age, and age of people working in the agricultural sector, as well as the lack of interest of young people in agriculture, which increase the dependence on the export market. In this regard, the government currently, despite some measures, such as increasing the number of women in agriculture, is still not fully thinking about the social aspects of Japanese society to direct its measures more efficiently. Japan has the potential to set an example of best practices in sustainable agriculture for other nations, but realizing this potential requires offering greater support and incentives to encourage farmers to transition to sustainable methods. Simultaneously, it is essential to cultivate interest and awareness about the advantages of sustainable agriculture among consumers. To effectively promote sustainable agriculture, the government should also consider the distinct needs and challenges faced by diverse regions and types of farmers. However, this review article primarily delves into the Japanese context, with some data limitations, particularly in assessing the socioeconomic impact of sustainable agricultural practices and their long-term effects. Furthermore, numerous studies are confined to specific populations or regions within Japan. Despite these constraints, promising prospects for future research and the broader implications of these findings are evident. Future research could conduct a comparative analysis of sustainable agricultural practices across countries, yielding a more comprehensive grasp of global trends and best practices. Additionally, conducting quantitative assessments to measure the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of sustainable agriculture in Japan and other regions would provide valuable data for the continued implementation of sustainable agriculture.

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