EJIHPE | Free Full-Text | Effect of an Active Break Intervention on Attention, Concentration, Academic Performance, and Self-Concept in Compulsory Secondary Education
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1. Introduction
Since the 1970s, the exponential development of technology has been introduced into the classroom, evolving toward the so-called technological paradigm in the 21st century. The direct consequences of this change are projected on the methodologies used in the teaching and learning processes in schools, and increasingly, a hyperconnected-to-screens society with a sedentary lifestyle is created [1].
Several studies show that older adolescents show low levels of physical activity (PA) due to a greater interest and dedication to sedentary leisure activities such as the use of screens [2], a phenomenon referring to the free time spent watching television, using computers, and playing video games, which some authors have called a “technological sedentary lifestyle” [3].
Alerted by the change in habits and its consequences, the World Health Organization [4], among other recommendations, points to the importance of moderate and intense PA as elements that “boost health”.
Among the drawbacks of sedentary habits, some affect the cognitive processes necessary for proper academic performance (AP). According to Ortiz [5], cognition refers to the act or process of knowing and the psychological processes involved in perception, attention, memory, recall, and thinking, which play a fundamental role in the cognitive and higher capacities of human beings, i.e., in rational processes (thought, language, intelligence, and creativity). Through cognitive processes or cognitive configuration, neural networks and circuits are created, enabling the acquisition of new knowledge. According to this author, cognitive processes are configured on the basis of a double structure: on the one side, simple cognitive processes that are divided into sensory processes (sensations, perception, attention, and concentration) and representational processes (memory, imagination and dreaming); on the other side, the complex or higher cognitive processes classified as rational processes (intelligence, language, and thought). These complex cognitive processes are more sophisticated than the simple processes and are formed from the simple processes.
In this regard, there is evidence suggesting that PA can improve cognitive functions and promote better well-being in individuals, as well as benefit the academic performance (AP) of school children [6,7]. Along the same line, Fenesi et al. [8] indicate the benefits of PA practice on the neurocognitive and psychoemotional development of students. The authors report that PA has direct and immediate effects on the brain (increased blood flow, increased neurotransmitters that improve cognitive functioning). Similarly, they suggest that the introduction of PA in the classroom increases feelings of joy and motivation to learn, along with improved classroom behavior.
According to Tarabini [9], schools and/or academic centers are considered specialized institutions for transmitting knowledge, skills, and abilities, together with shaping attitudes, dispositions, and characteristics that favor the comprehensive development of personal identity. Therefore, it is interesting to highlight the importance of stimulating and enriching environments that favor stimulation of simple or sensory cognitive processes (sensations, perception, attention, and concentration) as they are the basis of a correct cognitive process [5] that facilitate and favor students’ AP.
According to Steinmayr et al. [10], AP is a widely accepted measure that assesses the extent to which students reach the educational objectives set out in curricula. It seeks to determine the level of knowledge and skills that students have acquired in different academic areas, in this case, in the school context. It is important to consider that, as Nieto Martín [11] indicates, personal variables (cognitive variables, study habits, motivation, attention, concentration, self-concept, emotions) and social variables (social environment, socio-economic context, and socio-democratic dimensions) make up AP’s multifactorial nature.
Among the authors that took the association between PA practice and AP into account, Andrades-Suarez et al. [12] analyzed the effect of PA on AP and executive functions of the brain, concluding that PA has a positive influence on AP and executive function variables. This influence mainly translates into improved performance in mathematics and/or reading and memory and attention. The results of the study suggest that regular practice of PA can lead to significant academic and cognitive benefits, which highlights the importance of promoting PA as an integral part of students’ development and learning. Similarly, Giner et al. [13] observed a correlation between PA practice and AP in primary and secondary school students (mean age = 12.37). Trullén [14] investigated the factors that influence AP by analyzing the impact of out-of-school PA practice on AP. He concluded that out-of-school PA has a positive impact on AP, notably in girls and with respect to the subject of mathematics. In their systematic review about PA interventions and AP, Alvarez-Bueno et al. [15] suggest that PA-based interventions significantly benefit AP as well as classroom behavior. Similarly, in their systematic review about the relationship between PA practice and AP in schoolchildren, Chacón-Cubero et al. [16] reported that PA improves AP, and with greater improvements, the greater the volume and intensity of PA performed.
There is also a large body of research that has analyzed the impact of active breaks on AP, although the results point in opposite directions. Active breaks (AB) are breaks during lessons, lasting 5 to 10 min, for moderate or vigorous physical activity [17,18]. Research by Bartholomew et al. [19] (mathematics, language arts, and science), Fiorilli et al. [20] (mathematics), Macdonald et al. [21] (mathematics and reading), Magistro et al. [22] (arithmetic reasoning), Mavilidi et al. [23], and Mok et al. [24] reported significant differences between groups following AB interventions. In contrast, research by Arribas-Galarraga et al. [17] (spelling), Donnelly et al. [25] (mathematics, reading comprehension, spelling), Egger et al. [26] (spelling and reading), Erwin et al. [27] (mathematics and reading), Fedewa et al. [28] (mathematics), Mullender-Wijnsma et al. [29] (reading, spelling, mathematics, mathematics speed), Raney et al. [30], Snyder et al. [31], Solberg et al. [32], van den Berg et al. [33], and Young-Jones et al. [34] showed no significant differences between the groups. In addition, Mullender-Wijnsma et al. [35] found a significant effect between the AB and control groups in some of the groups, but not in all groups. This controversy invites further research.
Thus, when determining the variables that affect AP, studying attention, concentration, self-concept, and their relationship with others as a source of motivation is of interest.
Some authors present the attention variable as a key element in the activation of cognitive processes such as perception and memory [36]. According to Sohlberg and Mateer’s Clinical Model of Attention [37,38], attention is constituted following a hierarchical model, with the lower levels being more complex processes that require the correct functioning of higher levels. According to this hierarchical model of attention, the highest level is arousal, or the ability to be awake and alert, and it consists of the general activation of the organism to follow orders or stimuli. Focused Attention is the ability to respond directly to specific visual, auditory, or tactile stimuli at the second level. Sustained Attention is the ability to maintain consistent behavioral responses during continuous or repetitive activities. Selective Attention is the ability to maintain a behavior or cognitive set when faced with distractions or competing stimuli. Alternate Attention is the ability to shift the focus of attention and have mental flexibility to switch between tasks with different cognitive requirements. Finally, at the lowest level and therefore the most complex, is divided attention, or an individual’s ability to respond simultaneously to multiple tasks.
Regarding AB incidence on the attention variable, research by Ma et al. [39] and Magistro et al. [22] indicated significant differences between groups after the intervention in favor of the experimental group. Similarly, Contreras Jordán et al. [40] analyzed the incidence in the intervention group, pointing to a significant increase in attention levels after ABs. Research by Arribas-Galarraga et al. [17] observed significant differences after the intervention based on curricular-focused breaks (CF-ABs) in the intervention group, but not in comparison with the control group. In the study of Bartholomew et al. [19], they analyzed the incidence of CF-ABs on attention after the implementation of the program Texas I-CAN! in 3rd and 4th grade elementary school students. The results indicate that attention increased after active classes, but decreased after sedentary classes. Janssen et al. [41] observed that moderate and vigorous intensity PA breaks interventions significantly improved attention scores (p 42] analyzed the characteristics of activity intensity, duration, and the type of intervention carried out through active breaks to identify which have a greater impact on attention, concentration, and AP. The results indicated that active breaks are a valid strategy to obtain a higher cognitive performance, which has an impact on higher levels of attention, concentration, AP, and motivation. In addition, the studies reviewed in the systematic review point to differences in results due to the variety of interventions (duration, type, and intensity). The results indicate that the duration of the interventions is more effective when they are pauses ranging from 5 to 10 min. As for the intensity of PA, the results indicate that activities performed at vigorous intensity report greater benefits.
Concentration is a variable closely linked to attention. Ortiz [5] defines concentration as the ability to block irrelevant information, focus on what is important, and maintain this ability for long periods of time. Students encounter multiple simultaneous stimuli in the classroom, external and internal, which they are often unable to process. Acts involving surprise, novelty, or the satisfaction of a need will capture their attention. Thus, teachers’ intervention as facilitators of classroom dynamics that encourage active student participation can be considered relevant.
When reviewing research on the relationship between concentration and AB, no consensus has been found. The study by Contreras Jordán et al. [40], which analyzed the effect of AB in the intervention group without a control group, showed significant differences in the concentration variable. Similarly, research by Peiris et al. [43] indicates significant differences after the intervention in the intervention group and between the control and intervention groups. However, in the Scholz et al. [44] study, the difference between groups was not significant after the first six months of intervention, but it was significant at the beginning and end of the second year of intervention. In the study by Arribas-Galarraga et al. [17], the level of concentration improved significantly in the intervention group, but the results did not show significant differences between the intervention and control groups after the application of CF-ABs. Similarly, Mercader [45] observed no significant differences between the groups after a mindfulness-based intervention.
The self-concept is another variable associated with AP. Shavelson et al. [46] defined self-concept as the perception of oneself formed from experiences and relationships with the environment, and it is highly linked to environmental reinforcement and significant others. According to Rosenberg [47], a generic self-concept is made up of the set of images, thoughts, and feelings that a person has of him or herself. According to Shavelson et al.’s [46] model of self-concept, self-concept is a multidimensional and hierarchical variable. At the top of the hierarchy is the global self-concept, which is stable. At the bottom are more situation-dependent domains, which are less stable. Thus, a distinction is made between academic self-concept (languages, social studies, mathematics, science) and non-academic self-concept, which includes the sub-dimensions of social self-concept (peers and significant others), emotional self-concept (particular emotional states), and physical self-concept (physical abilities and physical appearance).
Numerous studies have analyzed the relationship between academic self-concept and academic performance. Veas et al. [48] analyzed the correlation between AP and academic self-concept in 1400 students (mean age = 12.5) and found a significant correlation between AP and academic self-concept. Carcamo et al. [49] analyzed the relationship between AP and self-concept of ability in mathematics and language in 406 fourth- and fifth- grade students. The results indicate that self-concept, achievement expectations, and age are significant factors explaining performance in both mathematics and language. These three elements had an impact on students’ performance in both subjects, suggesting that their self-perception, expectations, and age influence their academic performance in these specific areas. García Perales et al. [50] indicated that the general and academic self-concept of primary school students positively correlates with academic performance, indicating that a positive self-perception influences better school performance. In the systematic review by Mansilla Chacon et al. [51], the relationship between self-concept and AP was analyzed. In their study, it can be observed that primary and secondary school students with a high academic self-concept are linked to better AP, especially in adolescents.
On the other hand, Rojas-Jimenez et al. [52] reported a positive and direct association between self-concept and regular PA practice. This means that people with a high self-concept tend to participate more frequently in physical activities, whereas those with a lower self-concept tend to perform less PA. This suggests a bidirectional relationship, so self-concept may influence a person’s physical activity habits, and in turn, regular physical activity may have a positive impact on a person’s self-perception.
In terms of other factors that may influence AP, motivation should be considered. Specifically, Self-Determination Theory [53] is a general theory of motivation and personality that explores the extent to which people perform their actions with a high level of reflection and commitment, acting with a sense of choice. This theory comprises four mini-theories: Cognitive Appraisal Theory, Organic Integration Theory, Causal Orientations Theory, and Basic Needs Theory. According to Basic Needs Theory [54,55], the dimensions necessary for the correct performance of students’ academic functions are autonomy (perceiving oneself as the origin of one’s behavior), competence (feeling effective in interactions with social environment and feeling the opportunity to exercise one’s abilities), and relatedness (feeling connected and accepted by other people).
Recently, Wang et al. [56] indicated that satisfaction or not of basic psychological needs predicts AP. Studies such as Buzzai et al. [57] have shown positive correlations of AP with the dimensions of autonomy satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and competence satisfaction in a sample of adolescent students (mean age = 16.19). Furthermore, the findings of Liu et al. [58] revealed that students’ class participation is positively correlated with the dimensions of competence and relatedness, and that class participation is positively correlated with AP.
Based on the literature reviewed, the evidence indicates that society is moving towards higher and higher levels of sedentary lifestyles with negative repercussions that affect the physical and psychological health of individuals, as well as the cognitive processes associated with AP. This paradigm shift equally affects the student population, who spend most of their school time in sedentary activities focused on the transmission of knowledge, skills, and abilities. Therefore, it is necessary to promote methodologies that promote the transmission of knowledge, skills, and abilities through active methodologies.
The present study proposes an intervention based on the introduction of PA in the classroom as a teaching–learning method such as CF-ABs. The scientific literature invites us to think of CF-ABs as a valid strategy to promote cognitive [6,7,8] and physical activation in a society tending to sedentary habits. By implementing CF-ABs, sedentary teaching routines are changed, allowing moderate-vigorous intensity PA to be performed while working on academic content.
In order to describe the incidence of CF-ABs on attention and concentration and the relationship between intense physical activity (PA) and AP, the present study considers the multifactorial approach to AP. This model takes into account the multifactorial nature of AP, pointing out personal variables (attention, concentration, motivation, and self-concept) and social variables (social environment of the classroom) as variables that affect students’ AP.
For this reason, the present study considers it opportune to address two objectives: (1) to describe and analyze the effects of the application of a program of active breaks associated with learning of curricular content (CF-AB) on the levels of attention, concentration and academic performance; (2) to analyze the relationship between intense physical activity (PA), attention, concentration, academic self-concept, basic psychological needs, and academic performance in schoolchildren who practice CF-ABs.
4. Discussion
Considering that the child population spends much of its time in schools performing mostly sedentary tasks focused on the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and abilities [9], the CF-AB strategy facilitates a reduction in sedentary levels in the student population and an improvement in cognitive functions related to learning processes [6,7] along with an improvement in the neurocognitive and psychoemotional development of young people [8]. However, the existing literature on the incidence of CF-AB in AP is uncertain, which may be due, as Nieto Martín [11] suggests, to the fact that AP is multifactorial, composed of personal variables (cognitive variables, study habits, motivation, attention, concentration, self-concept, emotions) and social variables (social environment, socioeconomic context, and socio-democratic dimensions).
In view of the above background, the objectives of this study were (1) to describe and analyze the effects of the implementation of a program of curricular active breaks (CF-AB), associated with spelling learning, on the personal variables of attention and concentration and (2) to analyze the relationship between intense physical activity (PA) and the personal variables of attention, concentration, academic self-concept and the need to relate to others, variable that is included in the social variable, on spelling performance after this intervention.
To respond to the first purpose of the research, the results of the research show that, after intervention with CF-AB, the values of the attention and concentration variables increased more in the experimental group than in the control group, as well as the studies of Ma et al. [39] and Magistro et al. [22], although the differences were not statistically significant. These results coincide with the research of Arribas-Galarraga et al. [17], in which the incidence of CF-ABs in secondary school students (mean age = 12.13 years) is analyzed. The results after the intervention showed significant differences (p 19], that students’ attention is higher after active breaks compared to attention levels when they are engaged in sedentary activities.
Regarding concentration, both groups showed a slight improvement, but without statistical significance. However, it should be noted that the results of the current study agree with studies by Contreras Jordán et al. [40], Peiris et al. [43], Mercader [45], and Scholz et al. [44], where a trend in the improvement of concentration levels is observed after the implementation of programs based on active breaks. On the other hand, curiously, coinciding with Mercader [45], it is worth noting that concentration does not seem to explain improvement in AP, since, according to this author, concentration is not a predictor of academic performance.
Considering the slight difference in favor of attention and concentration variables in the experimental group, after the 8 week intervention, we can appreciate the need to implement intervention for longer periods of time, as these results may reflect an incipient improvement that could increase with the extension in time. When implementing active breaks in the classroom, it is important to consider the review by Pastor-Vicedo et al. [42], who point out that the most favorable characteristics are duration and intensity in obtaining better results in the variables of attention, concentration, and AP. They conclude that interventions should be implemented with duration of 5–10 min and that PA should be performed at a vigorous intensity. However, the positive trend of the experimental group in the improvement of attention and concentration suggests that the application of active breaks may have a positive impact on this group; therefore, we insist on further study to obtain more conclusive results.
When analyzing the incidence of CF-AB on the AP variable, the results showed a decrease in the AP score in both groups after the intervention. As mentioned above, there is controversy among the reviewed studies. Although some studies such as Contreras Jordán et al. [40] and Peiris et al. [43] support the improvement of AP after intervention with AB, the results of the current study coincide with other studies in which the desired AP was also not obtained [17,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. Taking Nieto Martín’s [11] case into account, the results obtained in this paper may be because AP is a multifactorial variable influenced by personal and social factors. In future research, special attention should be paid, among others, to possible stressors of AP (e.g., school evaluation period).
Considering the multifactorial nature of AP, the present research analyzes the relationship between intense physical activity and the personal variables of attention, concentration, academic self-concept, and the social variable of the social environment through the basic psychological needs variable that encompasses the dimensions of autonomy, relationship satisfaction, and competence satisfaction. In line with other research, this study also found that AP positively correlates with the “relatedness” dimension of basic psychological needs [56,57,59], academic self-concept [48,49,50,51], and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity outside of school. These findings suggest that maintaining relationships with others, having a high academic self-concept, and engaging in vigorous physical activity may influence students’ academic performance. In order to know the profile of the student who obtains better results in spelling performance after an intervention with CF-AB, a regression analysis was performed. The results suggest that students who obtained a better academic performance in spelling practiced more intense PA outside school, had a good academic self-concept, and maintained more satisfactory social relationships with their peers.
Future research studies may pay special attention to the number of sessions per week, the prolongation of the same during the school year, the intensity and duration of the activity, and the intervention of active breaks. In addition, it is also suggested to pay attention to possible AP stressors related to the multifactoriality of AP. Thus, to analyze the incidence of active breaks on AP, it is necessary to consider the personal variables (attention, concentration, self-concept, and motivation) and social variables (social environment, socioeconomic context, and the socio-democratic dimension) involved in AR.
Academic performance (AP) in Spelling was the curricular content analyzed in this study, presenting unfavorable results after the intervention. The results lead us to reflect on the weaknesses of the study. To this effect, it should be considered that although the scientific literature is solid regarding the relationship between the multiple benefits of PA practice on physical and psychological health and the multiple benefits on the neurocognitive and psychoemotional development of students [8], the existing results on the incidence of active breaks on attention, concentration, and AP should be interpreted with caution due to the variety of interventions in terms of duration, type, and intensity [42]. Therefore, the results on the incidence of active breaks on attention, concentration and AP variables in the present study should be interpreted with caution. It is necessary to investigate further in future research on the multifactorial nature of AP, since it is an important aspect to take into account, especially the stressors of AP in addition to the PA variable.
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