Emotional and Behavioural Factors Predisposing to Internet Addiction: The Smartphone Distraction among Italian High School Students
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6. Discussion
The study had two main objectives: initially, to verify within an adolescents sample the structure of the SDS (Smartphone Distraction Scale) [25], a questionnaire designed to assess the cognitive-emotional processes involved in problematic smartphone use; secondly, to explore the associations between these cognitive–emotional processes, individual vulnerability factors (i.e., internalising/externalising problems), and elevated levels of Internet addiction (IA) among adolescents. As far as the authors know, no previous studies explored distraction dimensions, as operationalised in the SDS (i.e., emotion regulation, attention impulsiveness, online vigilance, and multitasking) among adolescents. Past studies revealed positive associations between these dimensions of smartphone distraction and problematic mobile use, fear of missing out (FOMO), metacognitions (e.g., advantages of smartphone use as a means to distract oneself from worries), and smartphone addiction among adult users [24,26]. Therefore, a noteworthy strength of the current study lies in its shift of focus towards adolescents, the generation characterised as both the most avid users of digital devices and the most susceptible to pathological involvement and addiction [6,15]. Consequently, recognising the cognitive–emotive and behavioural profile of adolescents potentially at risk of developing various forms of technology addiction becomes imperative for effective prevention and intervention strategies.
The findings provide empirical support for the four-factor dimensions of the Italian SDS when applied to adolescents. Throuvala and colleagues [25] originally developed the SDS with a sample of British university students, identifying 16 items organised into 4 subdimensions (i.e., emotional regulation, attention impulsiveness, online vigilance, and multitasking). In the Italian context, Mascia and colleagues [24] conducted a validation study with adult participants, affirming a four-factor structure identical to that of the original SDS. In our study, we implemented a factorial model, which yielded results consistent with the established structure prevalent in the existing literature. Consequently, while this result allows us to apply the SDS to the adolescent sample in our study, it also underscores the need for more targeted validation research within the adolescent demographic. This dual perspective emphasises the significance of both utilising the SDS in our current investigation and promoting further validation studies tailored to the unique characteristics of adolescent populations in the Italian context.
In accordance with the hypothesis, all SDS dimensions were found to be associated with higher levels of IA, thus substantiating the assertion that adolescents with problematic engagement in online activities exhibit elevated attention interruption (i.e., multitasking), cognitive–emotive preoccupation with the smartphone (i.e., online vigilance), and employ smartphone activities as a coping strategy to alleviate negative emotional states (i.e., emotion regulation). These findings align coherently with the developmental literature regarding the psychological functions of smartphones, such as online chatting, connecting with social media networks, and engaging in activities like gambling, among others, within the context of adolescence. Specifically, adolescents consistently access social media platforms to communicate with peers, share experiences, and receive emotional support, thereby expressing a sense of connection and belongingness [56]. This motivation propels them to engage in frequent online activities. Moreover, as elucidated by Griffiths [57], the habit of using social networking sites can be comprehended by considering the impact on users’ reward systems, which tends to be unpredictable and random. An illustrative example of a reward is the receipt of “Likes” from other users, contributing to an increased “desire for validation” and prompting repeated visits to check for appreciation on social platforms. Nevertheless, intensive use of social media is correlated with adolescents’ smartphone overuse [58], contemplation of social content [59], and apprehension about losing or being excluded from enjoyable online experiences (i.e., FOMO; [60]). Our results are consistent with the studies affirming that the social use of the Internet through smartphones represents a potent source of distraction among adolescents [61].
The utilisation of smartphone distraction as a strategy for emotion regulation is also found to be significantly correlated with adolescents’ IA. In this context, smartphone distraction serves to momentarily alleviate the distress and negative mood perceived by adolescents, yet it functions as a maladaptive coping strategy that perpetuates smartphone overuse. These findings align with prior research indicating the associations between adolescents internalising problems (such as anxiety or boredom) and excessive smartphone overuse [18,30,38]. Furthermore, Marino and colleagues [59] observed that emotional regulation predicts the usage of social networking sites among adolescents. It is noted that young individuals are inclined to spend increased time on social networking sites during periods of negative emotional states. The internet is often compulsively employed with the specific aim of “altering” mood, reflecting a pattern consistent with the present study’s observations.
In the context of this study, elevated levels of attentional impulsivity—manifested as an inability to focus attention or concentrate on a primary task—were found to be associated with IA. During adolescence, a diminished attentional control can be elucidated as a correlate of incomplete brain development, resulting in observed difficulties in various cognitive tasks, including selective attention, working memory, and inhibitory control [62]. Research affirms that adolescents’ immaturity in inhibitory control, self-regulation, and attentional control is linked to smartphone addiction, with higher rates of smartphone addiction observed among children and young people aged 10–20 compared to adults aged 21–30 [63]. Particularly noteworthy, the findings from the current study contribute to existing research on the role of impulsivity [29], in conjunction with disinhibition and susceptibility to boredom (or sensation seeking [39]) as a vulnerability factor for problematic smartphone use during adolescence.
In summary, the outcomes of the current study not only endorse the expansion of the application of Throuvala’s theoretical framework to a younger demographic of smartphone users but also endeavour to delineate a profile of individuals exhibiting problematic usage patterns. Participants of this study were community adolescents living in a hyper-connected word where the use of technological devices is pervasive, therefore a boundary between normal and problematic Internet use is very “fuzzy” [64,65]. However, due the explorative scope of this study, participants who differ with respect to levels of online engagement (lower vs. problematic) were identified according to Young’s screening criteria [44]. Following the identification of non-problematic (lower) users and those manifesting problematic levels on IAT scores, a comparative analysis of smartphone distraction dimensions and internalising/externalising symptoms was conducted across the two groups. Adolescents categorised within the problematic usage group reported more elevated levels in all dimensions of smartphone distraction, along with heightened emotional issues (e.g., anxiety, negative mood) and disruptive problems (e.g., hyperactivity/inattention and conduct/interpersonal problems). These findings contribute to the existing body of literature elucidating the association between internalising/externalising problems and problematic smartphone use during adolescence [21,41].
However, the paramount outcome of the current study lies in the identification of heightened levels of hyperactivity/inattention as a precursor to IA. These findings are in line with studies underscoring the pivotal role of impulsivity, a core symptom of ADHD, and sensitivity to rewards in the development of IA, including smartphone addiction, social media addiction, and gambling [10,66]. Adolescents exhibiting ADHD traits, particularly those with deficiencies in inhibition and cognitive control [10], may find smartphone activities exceptionally appealing, given the ability to seamlessly switch between multiple functions, respond rapidly, and receive immediate rewards. Additional studies emphasize emotional dysregulation, characterised by an inability to effectively regulate aroused emotions and the stimulation of positive affective states among individuals with ADHD [63]. These findings collectively suggest that emotional dysregulation may contribute to problematic smartphone use among individuals with ADHD.
Collectively, research corroborates the role of ADHD traits as predisposing factors for IA within non-clinical populations [40,67]. The neurodevelopmental nature of ADHD positions these traits at the extreme end of a continuum, where in a subclinical manifestation, they may also be present in the general population. Given the early onset of ADHD symptoms and the decreasing age at which individuals begin using smartphones, it is advisable to conduct further studies aimed at screening children who may be more susceptible to developing technology addiction.
Limitations
The findings of this study are subject to certain limitations that warrant consideration. Firstly, the results are derived from a convenience sample of high school students in a city in southern Italy; therefore, generalisability across the broader Italian youth population is constrained. Secondly, due to the self-reported nature of the data, the possibility of bias in reported online activities cannot be entirely dismissed. Future investigations incorporating objective assessment methods (as exemplified by Coyne and colleagues [68]) could offer a more comprehensive exploration of the associations between smartphone distraction and various online activities (e.g., watching movies, browsing social networking sites) engaged in by adolescents. Similarly, it would be worthwhile to delve into which specific online activities (e.g., shopping, social media networking) may induce higher levels of smartphone distraction. Thirdly, internalising and externalising symptoms were self-reported by participants using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; [46]). Although the SDQ is a widely recognised screening scale and it was employed in studies on behavioural problems associated with adolescents’ smartphone overuse (e.g., [21]), its selection aligns with the exploratory nature of the present study. However, future investigations with clinical samples could further explore the reciprocal influences between internalising factors (e.g., depression, anxiety, loneliness) or externalising disorders (e.g., ADHD) and the cognitive–emotive aspects of smartphone distraction. Specifically, the results of this study underscore the significance of high levels of hyperactivity/inattention symptoms compared to other individual characteristics (i.e., conduct problems, emotional issues, poor prosocial behaviours) in predicting Internet addiction (IA) among problematic smartphone users. Subsequent studies with clinical samples may elucidate how core symptoms of ADHD, such as impulsivity [15,69] or hyperactivity/inattention [10,67], contribute to distraction and smartphone overuse.
7. Conclusions
This study carries significant implications for clinical research, as well as for preventive and public health measures. A considerable proportion of adolescents exhibit a pronounced degree of Internet usage through their smartphones. Moreover, cognitive–emotive distraction processes that impede everyday functioning may come into play. As posited by Throuvala and colleagues [25], it is plausible that multiple dimensions simultaneously contribute to problematic Internet use, particularly through smartphones. For instance, a bored student (engaging in emotion regulation) may continually check their smartphone (manifesting online vigilance) while awaiting notifications, thereby interrupting the ongoing homework (engaging in multitasking). Nevertheless, individuals with problematic Internet use demonstrate elevated levels of smartphone distraction, and in the presence of heightened levels of hyperactivity/inattention, a vulnerability towards overusing the Internet via smartphones appears more probable. This holds particular relevance for clinical research objectives.
Moreover, the present study underscores the necessity of conducting screenings using comprehensive instruments (such as SDS and SDQ) to obtain increasingly precise information for subsequent interventions. While more thorough and structured validation studies with adolescents are imperative, the SDS could prove beneficial for screening and interventions within school populations [70]. It can be employed to instruct individuals on effective management of negative emotions, identification of external factors (e.g., notification cues) or internal conditions (i.e., thoughts or emotions) preceding Internet access, and the promotion of self-regulation in smartphone use. As empirically based evidence, a cognitive–behavioural intervention focusing on mindful attention, self-monitoring, and mood self-awareness demonstrated effectiveness in reducing smartphone distraction and daily smartphone usage among university students [71].
Hence, the present study contributes to comprehending Internet addiction as a complex, multidimensional phenomenon linked to various individual (such as impulsivity and emotional states) and contextual factors (including parenting or school learning activities) that play a role in the discomfort experienced by adolescents.
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