How Can Price Promotions Make Consumers More Interested? An Empirical Study from a Chinese Supermarket
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1. Introduction
According to a review of the existing literature, the effect of price promotions on the purchasing behavior of consumers is contested. This may be attributed to variations in results caused by factors such as promotion depth, promotion duration, and promotion area. In addition, this can be a result of the varying effects of price promotions on the purchasing behavior of consumers across categories. Furthermore, since there are relationships between substitution and complementarity among products, price promotions may further change these connections. As a result, it is vital to conduct a category-specific in-depth study in order to assess how price promotions affect supermarkets as a whole.
Additionally, the present study mostly considers promotion depth as an indication of price promotions when assessing the impact of price promotions on supermarket performance, disregarding the consequences of promotion breadth and duration. The results of single-item promotions versus multi-category synergistic promotions may differ widely according to the connection between items and transaction costs, and only measuring promotion depth may provide unpredictable results. Therefore, this research will concurrently investigate multiple characteristics of price promotions, including promotion depth, promotion breadth, and promotion duration.
In this study, to supplement previous research and further investigate the relationship between promotional strategy selection and consumer behavior in the Chinese market, we model the relationship using sales and pricing data for all goods in ten major stores of a leading regional supermarket chain in China and attempt to answer the following questions with an empirical model based on scanner data. Firstly, can price promotions encourage consumers to shop in supermarkets? Secondly, how can price promotions attract consumers to shop in supermarkets, and what are the theoretical mechanisms and actual effects? Thirdly, how does the adoption of promotional strategies affect the purchasing behavior of consumers regarding products with various category characteristics?
2. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses
Price promotions not only have a positive impact on the sales of promotional items but also promote the sales of non-promotional items to some extent. On the one hand, as the depth and breadth of promotions increase, supermarkets attract many price-sensitive consumers. Once these consumers enter the supermarket, the sunk costs associated with transportation and time from their place of origin to the supermarket become significant. Even if some planned items are not on promotion, consumers will hesitate to switch to another store to purchase them due to the additional costs of transportation and time. These higher switching costs confine consumers to the supermarket. On the other hand, with an increase in the number of promoted items, consumers need to spend more effort wandering around the supermarket to search for and identify promotional product information. During this process, they may also come across other non-promotional items, which may stimulate unplanned purchases by consumers. Furthermore, as the depth of promotions increases, consumers save more, and the increase in purchasing power may drive the sales of other products. Therefore, price promotion activities can boost sales across all product categories in the supermarket. Consequently, based on the analysis of the impact mechanism of price promotions on supermarket performance, we propose the following hypothesis:
As the promotion depth and breadth increase, more consumers are attracted to enter the supermarket and purchase non-promotional products along with promotional products, which increases purchase behavior.
Additionally, the impact of price promotions on the purchasing behavior of consumers varies across different product categories. Based on the price elasticity theory, if a product category lacks price elasticity, price promotions are unlikely to significantly increase sales. However, if a product category is characterized by price elasticity, price promotions can boost revenue through higher sales volumes with lower profit margins. The differences in product price elasticity are mainly attributed to factors such as product characteristics, functionality, and consumer demand for the product. Therefore, different product categories exhibit variations in the impact of price promotions on performance.
Furthermore, let us analyze the differences in the characteristics of product categories. First, when price promotions are applied to products with higher price levels, consumers, under the same promotional intensity, incur higher transaction costs. In situations with budget constraints, it seems easier for consumers to increase their purchases of lower-priced products because the impact on their budget is smaller. Consequently, price promotions have a more significant effect on products with lower price levels. Second, products with higher average sales levels perform better in terms of promotions. This is primarily because higher sales levels indicate a higher purchase frequency for the product, larger consumer demand, and faster consumption rates. Such products become more attractive to consumers through promotions, driving consumption. Third, product categories with a higher quantity of products perform less effectively in promotions. The numerous products within these categories increase the cost for consumers to search for promoted items, discouraging purchases by consumers with higher time costs. Additionally, a higher quantity of products within a category indicates higher market competition, resulting in more choices for consumers and higher decision-making costs, making it less favorable for consumer shopping. Fourth, products with longer shelf lives perform better in promotions. When there is available storage space, consumers can purchase these products in larger quantities and stock up, increasing current consumption for future use and consequently reducing the unit price of the product over the long term.
Based on the above analysis, we propose another hypothesis in this paper:
The impact of price promotions on the purchasing behavior of consumers varies across different product categories. Products with lower price levels, higher sales levels, fewer products, and longer shelf lives exhibit better promotional performance.
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Econometric Method
where is the purchasing behavior of the consumers of store s in period , which is measured by gross profit or turnover; is a key variable matrix that includes the independent variables we are interested in, denoted as:
where cross-term mean the dummy variable of the holiday and promotion depth-holiday cross variables, respectively. Considering that supermarkets might attract more consumers by adjusting promotion depth on holidays, we paid particular attention to the cross-term of promotion depth and holiday. represents the control variable matrix, including other major factors that affect supermarket performance and must be taken under control, including the seasonal dummy variable, per capita disposable income, and the population of the region where the store is located. and are the estimated regression coefficients of the key variable and control variable, respectively. Specifically, the estimated values of promotion duration, breadth, and depth can be used to verify if there is a positive correlation between supermarket performance and price promotion. Their ratios can be further used to analyze which means of price promotion was applied to improve supermarket performance. The error term is .
where represents the purchasing behavior of the consumers of store s in period , which is measured by turnover or gross profit; represents the control variable, including promotion duration, season, holidays, and population; is the promotion depth of store s in period t; shows the impact of the promotion depth of category i on the supermarket’s performance. The error term is .
where represents the characteristic of category , and represents the effect of characteristic on supermarket performance during the price promotion. Substituting (4) into (2), the following expression is obtained:
where
,
. The above model is taken logarithmically and expanded to obtain the following expression:
In Equation (7), is the sum of the category price level multiplied by the promotion depth; represents the sum of category sales multiplied by the promotion depth; represents the sum of the category sales level multiplied by the promotion depth; represents the sum of the category product quantity multiplied by the promotion depth; represents the sum of the promotion breadth multiplied by the promotion depth. The main role of the variable of promotion breadth in this chapter is as a control variable. The estimation of Equation (6) yields a series of estimates of , that is, the impact of each category characteristic variable on performance in the price promotion.
is a linear function containing four category characteristics that affect supermarket performance. It is also the estimated value of the coefficient of the promotion depth variable of each category in Formula (3), which represents the impact of each category on performance during the price promotion.
The data structure used in this study is the panel data composed of 26 promotion seasons of 10 stores, so the empirical regression is mainly calculated by using the panel data model. Traditional panel data measurement models included fixed effects (FE) and random effects (RE) models. The original hypothesis cannot be rejected by the Hausman test result in all cases after regression, which indicated that the RE model was superior to the FE model. To begin with, the regression analysis of the supermarket’s panel data was made using the RE model. Considering the possible store heteroscedasticity in panel data, a robust standard deviation was used in the RE model to correct the possible estimation deviation. Next, the endogeneity between key variables and supermarket performance was considered. Model regression was carried out using different traditional instrumental variables (IVs), with the most effective IV selected. Lastly, the generalized method of moments (GMM) was selected to measure model regression. The GMM estimation method is a statistical method used to estimate panel data models through the introduction of lagged variables by differencing panel data, so that the model includes dynamic characteristics and thus better reflects the relationship between variables. This method can be taken as a further robust result for the better use of different IVs to solve the endogenous problem in the model. Over-identification and autocorrelation tests were conducted after the regression of all IVs; therefore, the validity of the estimation result was ensured. In addition, a further robust analysis of the validity of the model structure was performed.
3.2. Micro-Level Supermarket Data
In this study, the one-year continuous scanner data from ten stores of a regional supermarket chain in eastern China in 2017 were used for the test. According to the information provided by the supermarket, there were 26 promotion seasons in the year and each promotion season lasted approximately 3–5 days. Over 23,000 items were involved, covering the vast majority of food and general commodities apart from fresh products. The data from affiliated items were excluded from the scanner data since these items are sold by independent merchants that rent the supermarket space and often launch promotion activities that differ from those of the supermarket. The stores were randomly selected by the administrative unit of the supermarket headquarters’ metropolitan area. In total, ten stores from seven municipal districts, each densely populated with a large number of supermarkets, were selected. All the stores were chain supermarkets following uniform requirements, standards, and scale, but the number of items on the supermarket shelves may have varied from store to store.
The scanner dataset primarily contained item category codes, item category names, item names, brand names, specifications, item purchase prices, retail prices, special offers (promotion activities), sales volume, turnover, gross profit, and gross profit margin. This dataset is one of the few microscopic scanner datasets from supermarkets that can be used for academic research in China. It is able to favorably reflect the pricing strategies supermarkets utilize for their consumers. Based on the above data, the following basic processing is required in this paper: (1) First, promotion data sheets and scanner data needed to be indexed by commodity code for lateral matching. Then, the data of 26 periods from 10 stores were integrated longitudinally to synthesize the overall data needed for the study, with information from a total of 619,1991 samples. (2) Since the profit of the affiliate merchandise is not internal to the supermarket and the supermarket only charges a certain amount of rent for the affiliate area, it is necessary to exclude the information related to the affiliate merchandise. (3) Since fresh foods are perishable, their loss rate is high, and their daily price fluctuations are large, supermarkets consider the sales data of fresh products separately. The data obtained in this study lack accuracy regarding fresh foods; therefore, it is necessary to exclude this information. (4) Abnormal values were excluded, including samples with sales below zero, samples with sales volumes below zero, and samples with zero commodity prices.
3.3. Data Description
From the category sales levels, the lowest sales, from lowest to highest, are small office appliances and swimwear. The sales of the above two categories are below 10 pieces. On the contrary, the highest sales, from highest to lowest, are condiments, refrigerated yogurt, puffed food, grain and oil, special paper, and daily paper. The sales of these six categories are above 1000 units. Sales in the other 22 categories ranged from 10 to 1000. In general, the categories with higher sales are those that consumers use more frequently or on a daily basis.
In terms of the quantity of products in the category, the category with the minimum number of products is small office appliances, with an average number of 10.75. The category with the maximum number of products is head care, with an average number of 780.8. Overall, the number of products varies greatly between categories.
4. Results
4.1. Empirical Analysis of Supermarket Promotions on Consumer Purchasing Behaviour
Since the endogenous problem of promotion variables, promotion depth, promotion breadth, and cross-term cannot be solved by the fixed-effect regression (1), different instrumental variables were used to correct the endogenous bias in Equations (2)–(5). In this study, two main types of instrumental variables were applied: (i) the second and third lagged variables of the promotion depth and breadth; and (ii) the second and third lagged variables of the average values of promotion depth and breadth in other stores. In theory, the second kind of instrumental variable is more suitable for the traditional Longitudinal Panel with large N and small T. On the contrary, the first kind of instrumental variable can be applied to a Longitudinal Panel with large T and small N more aptly. The data, which were T = 26 and N = 10, can be seen as relative square (T ≈ N) panel data. Therefore, these two types of instrumental variables were applied at the same time to solve the endogenous problem, and the validity of instrumental variables was further verified by estimating outcomes. The lag time of the instrumental variables was tested. The researchers found that the first lag period of endogenous variables, as well as the current period and the first lag period of average sales of promotion depth and breadth in other stores, could not pass the validation test as instrumental variables. The finding revealed the relativity of these instrumental variables to random perturbation terms, explaining why they cannot be used as an effective instrumental variable. The main reason may be that the depth, breadth, and cross-term of the last period promotion of this store, or of the current promotion of other stores, were still strongly correlated with these three characteristics of this store in the current period. Meanwhile, the correlation of the characteristics of the season that exceeded a two-period span was relatively weak, which means not much impact was generated.
After the regression results were achieved via IV and GMM, over-identified and autocorrelation tests were carried out to verify the autocorrelation between the validity of instrumental variables and residuals. It should be noted that the autocorrelation test result of Arellano–Bond is not entirely reliable when T in panel data is relatively large. Although the panel data used were similar to the data of the square panel, T was still significantly larger than N. Caution is required when analyzing the results of autocorrelation tests, as is a detailed discussion of the results to verify the rationality of the main analysis outcomes.
4.1.1. Empirical Analysis of the Effect of Promotion Methods on Consumer Purchasing Behavior
Empirical results indicated that price promotion can significantly promote consumer purchasing behavior, which is reflected in the improvement of supermarket performance. This empirical result verifies Hypothesis 1, that is, supermarkets can improve consumers’ purchasing behavior by increasing the promotion depth and width. The research verified the rationality of Chinese supermarkets’ move to improve their business conditions and performance simultaneously. The regression results of turnover and gross profit were also a reflection of the fact that the impact of supermarket price promotion on gross profit was slightly greater than that on the turnover, further proving that price promotion can significantly improve supermarket performance.
Estimates of the cross variables between promotion depth and holiday dummy variables show that increased price promotion during holidays will remarkably increase the supermarket’s turnover, although its elasticity coefficient is too small to significantly impact supermarket profits. The underlying reason may be that the holiday period is the peak period for consumption in supermarkets, and the profit from the large-scale sales of promotional commodities will not be sufficient to compensate for the loss caused by the promotion. This further demonstrates the limitation of price promotion competition theory for practically improving supermarket performance. Empirical results further show that the holiday dummy variables themselves at the level of 1% have a negative impact on trading volume, but the impact on gross profit is not obvious.
4.1.2. Empirical Analysis of the Effect of Promotion Methods on the Performance of Promotional and Non-Promotional Products
4.2. Category Heterogeneity Analysis of the Effect of Supermarket Promotions on Consumer Purchasing Behaviour
According to the regression results, the cross-term price characteristics of product categories and promotion depth have a significantly negative impact at the 1% level on supermarket performance. This indicates that although the discount on higher-priced categories results in more savings perceived by consumers than lower-priced categories, the higher-priced categories also lose more profit relative to the original high price. The increase in profits from increased sales is not enough to compensate for the decrease in profits from lower prices, which ultimately leads to a decrease in gross profits. In addition, goods with high price levels require consumers to pay more in transaction costs when they are on sale, and if the goods are not part of the purchase plan, this extra expense has a greater impact on the budget and makes impulse purchases less likely. Second, the cross-term of category sales volume and promotion depth has a significant positive impact on performance. Because the category with high sales volume is the category that consumers often buy, and when its price is reduced, consumers who had planned to buy products within the category buy the same number of products as planned or buy even more because of a lower price than psychologically expected. In addition, consumers who did not plan to buy such products are attracted by the promotional information and perceive the increased value of buying the product, leading to purchase behavior. The combined result of these two consumer behaviors is that although the price promotion leads to a decrease in the transaction value and gross profit per unit of the good, the turnover and gross profit eventually increase due to increased purchases of the good by consumers. Third, the cross-term of the number of products in the category and promotion depth has a significantly negative effect on performance. This is because of the large number of products in the category and the fierce competition, leading to an increase in consumer search costs which then affects the promotion effect. Fourth, the impact of the cross-term of storage resistance and promotion depth on performance is significantly positive. The main reason is that price promotions for storage-resistant products can encourage consumers to buy and stock up, which in turn increases performance as the significant increase in sales volume offsets the loss from product price reductions. These regression results verify Hypothesis 2 proposed above. That is, the promotion of different product categories has different effects on consumers’ purchasing behaviors. Promotions for categories with lower prices, higher sales, fewer product categories, and better storage endurance can better promote consumer purchase behavior.
In terms of control variables, promotional breadth remains significantly positive in this model. It illustrates that multi-product collaborative promotion can drive an increase in consumer consumption. Due to the increase in the number of promotional products, consumers increase their purchases and promote the increase in supermarket performance. In the dynamic GMM model, the one-period lags of turnover and gross profit have a significantly positive effect on current period turnover and gross profit, respectively. The possible reason is that supermarkets attract a large number of consumers to engage in store-switching behavior through price promotions, and these consumers will continue to make purchases at the supermarket in the next period after enjoying the benefits brought by the price promotions, thus contributing to the increase in supermarkets’ performance in the current period.
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions and Prospects
6.1. Conclusions
In this research, the relationship between three characteristics of price promotion and consumers’ purchasing behavior was studied based on commodity scanner data from a Chinese supermarket. The researchers analyzed whether promotional pricing could promote consumer purchase behavior by examining the causal relationship between the three major characteristics of price promotion (promotion depth, breadth, and duration), supermarket sales, and gross profit. The results show that promotions can contribute to the overall performance of supermarkets and drive the sales of non-promotional items. The significant positive effects of promotion depth, promotion breadth, and promotion duration on supermarket performance also indicate that price competition strategy and multi-product pricing strategy play an important role in the market competition of large integrated supermarkets. Large integrated supermarkets not only attract price-sensitive consumers to buy products by lowering prices to improve performance but also broaden the scope of merchandising and enhance the realization of multi-product pricing effects.
Heterogeneity studies based on category characteristics have shown that the impact of different categories of products on consumers’ purchasing behavior in promotional activities varies significantly. A total of 14 of the 30 categories have a positive impact on transaction value during price promotions, and 16 categories have a positive impact on gross profit during price promotions. In price promotion activities, the category with the largest negative impact on turnover and gross profit is small kitchen appliances, and the category with the largest positive impact is special paper.
The impact of different category characteristics on consumers’ purchasing behavior in promotional activities also varies significantly. The sales volume and storage resistance of the category have significant positive effects on supermarket turnover and gross profit. The price level and the number of products included in the category have significant negative effects on supermarket turnover and gross profit. This finding illustrates that when price promotions are conducted, since categories with high average sales volume are those with high purchase frequency, compared with the categories with low purchase frequency, they are more likely to attract consumers’ attention and promote purchase behavior, improving performance. When storage-resistant categories undergo price promotions, consumers can stock up for future use. Therefore, stocking behavior promotes performance. The increase in consumption due to higher-priced categories cannot compensate for the decrease in transaction value and profits. A large number of products in the category increases the search cost for consumers, so consumers with high time costs are not willing to spend time searching for such promotional items.
6.2. Enlightenment
Studying the effect of supermarket promotions on consumers’ purchasing behavior is of great practical significance for supermarket managers to formulate price strategies as well as for the sustainable development of the retail industry. This research suggests the following two policy implications. First, the improvement of price promotion depth for Chinese supermarket performance is limited. Deep discounts on a limited number of products cannot attract enough consumers—and may primarily appeal to a large number of consumers who only buy products at the lowest price—resulting in limited improvements in supermarket performance. Thus, decision-makers should balance the depth and breadth of promotions by increasing consumer search costs through multi-product pricing to further increase sales of non-promotional products and ensure performance growth. Decision-makers should take advantage of Chinese holidays, the peak demand period for goods by consumers as they enjoy leisure activities, to enhance supermarket performance. Empirical results also confirm this viewpoint, with the cross-term of holiday and promotion depth having a significant positive impact on transaction volume. As a signal of price promotions, holidays provide additional opportunities to increase Chinese supermarket sales.
Second, supermarket decision-makers need to choose promotional items reasonably and carefully when formulating promotion strategies to improve performance through multi-category synergy promotion strategies. The effectiveness of different categories in conducting price promotions varies greatly, and a wrong choice can, on the contrary, lead to a decline in performance. According to the conclusion of this paper, the categories with low average price, storage resistance, a small number of products, and high purchase frequency of consumers should be selected for price promotion, which will be more helpful for performance improvement.
6.3. Limitations and Prospects
In this study, we have two main limitations. The first aspect mainly lies in the lack of information from supermarkets. Due to the privacy inherent in supermarket operations, we cannot obtain more specific operational characteristic data related to each supermarket store. Therefore, we cannot control some operation index variables in the analysis, which may lead to some errors in our results. Another shortcoming is the lack of information relevant to consumers. We cannot obtain consumer characteristics corresponding to sales records, so the analysis of different consumer purchasing behaviors is not specific enough. In this study, it can only be inferred theoretically that price promotion promotes the purchase behavior of time-sensitive and price-sensitive consumers, but it cannot be tested through empirical analysis. Future research can be extended and expanded in these two aspects. The problem of insufficient information from enterprises can be solved by the research method of case analysis, and consumer research can be carried out for the study of consumer characteristics.
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