Key Indicator Development for Marine Litter Management in Tunisian Coastal Area
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3.2.1. Waste Generated from Land-Based Activities
Population, a driving force, is an indicator of land-based anthropogenic sources of plastic waste generated by household consumption and coastal and beach visitation. According to the United Nations Environment Program [33], an increase in population inevitably leads to an increase in the amount of waste in cities and waste infrastructures, particularly landfills. The increase in the quantity of household waste in Tunisia is more intense in coastal areas where urbanization is important. The concentration of population in coastal agglomerations leads to a change in production and consumption patterns, the production of more waste, and a change in its composition.
The coasts of Tunisia, bounded to the north and east by the Mediterranean Sea, are subject to increasing pressures, including the concentration of the population and visitors. The location of the population is constantly growing. In 2014, 70.7% of the population was concentrated on the coast, and it is estimated that this has increased to 71.8% in 2021 compared with 67.7% in 2004 and 64.7% in 1956, following a migratory dynamic from inland areas. Currently, according to the National Institute of Statistics [34], the total population of the 13 governorates opening onto the Mediterranean Sea is 7.768 million inhabitants (estimated 8.607 million in 2021). These regions bring together 130 coastal municipalities after the extension of the municipal space in 2018, which currently covers the entire Tunisian territory. These coastal municipalities represent 45% of the total population of Tunisia [34], which currently stands at 11.8 million [34].
The average amount of waste generated per capita mentioned in the national strategy for the integrated management of household and similar waste is 0.65 kg/person/day. With regard to the percentage within this figure, according to ANGed, the plastic fraction in household waste is estimated at an average of 9.4%. The composition of waste varies from one municipality to another. According to a characterization carried out in Sidi Bou Saïd (high-income area), Bardo (middle-income area), and Hrairia (low-income area), the following plastic percentages were apparent: 17.6%, 12.1%, and 6.2%, respectively.
Mismanaged solid waste is waste that is not collected or disposed of in inappropriate places (in non-anarchic landfills) and will end up in nature and the sea through rivers, waterways, winds, storms, and tides. Eleven landfills are currently active in the coastal governorates, three of which have been closed or are not operational: Djerba, Mehdia, and Monastir as presented in Figure 6.
Tunisia relies significantly on tourism as a crucial economic driver. The Ministry of Tourism reports a rise in tourist numbers, surging from 8.2 million in 2018 to approximately 9.4 million in 2019. Notably, 95% of Tunisia’s tourist activity is concentrated in coastal regions [35].
The majority of tourist facilities are situated along the country’s coastlines. Major tourist hotspots, especially during the summer season, produce substantial amounts of waste. This scenario adds pressure on local authorities to effectively handle the waste using their existing logistical resources. Currently, more than 76% of hotels and restaurants, particularly those serving tourists, are located in coastal governorates, with only 24% situated in interior governorates. These establishments generate significant amounts of waste, as evidenced by the waste characterization conducted in hotels in Hammamet and Gammarth [35]. Notably, the plastic fraction comprises between 14% and 20% of the total waste generated in these locations. A majority of Tunisian hotels, constituting 83%, dispose of waste without any source sorting, adopting an indiscriminate approach. Conversely, the remaining hotels have taken steps to implement sorting measures, aiming to reduce waste and improve recycling efforts.
The annual estimate for agricultural waste is 4 million tons. This type of waste undergoes recovery and reuse processes, being utilized as livestock feed and for food preparation and heating; it is also suitable for composting on both private and state farms [36].
The Tunisian coastline is characterized by a significant concentration of urban and tourist activities, with approximately 65% of urban agglomerations (equivalent to around 4.5 million inhabitants) and nearly 95% of hotel capacities (exceeding 200,000 beds) situated in this region. Additionally, almost all of Tunisia’s industrial activities, including heavy industries and the majority of energy-related industries, are clustered along the coast. These industrial activities contribute to various forms of pollution, particularly in coastal areas such as Gabès, Menzel Bourguiba, Bizerte, Goulette Radès, Sousse, Monastir, and Sfax-Skhira [37].
3.2.2. Waste Generated on the Beaches and in Coastal Zones
As per APAL [26], the overall coastal length in contact with sea level is 1670 km, comprising 68% continental length, 20% island length, and 12% artificial length. The condition of the coast significantly impacts both manual and mechanical cleaning operations. Presently, there are over 142 beaches along the Tunisian coast. In the target sampling cities, the number of beaches is, respectively, 7 in Tunis, 12 in Sousse, 34 in Nabeul, 5 in Sfax, and 11 in Gabès. The average dimensions of these beaches range from 1 to 7 km in length and 5 to 70 m in width.
These coastal cities are renowned for their diverse recreational activities, hosting various events on their beaches throughout the year, especially during the summer season. Tunisia possesses significant advantages for the development of pleasure boating. Its proximity to Europe is a key factor, complemented by natural attractions that appeal to boaters, such as its central Mediterranean location, extensive coastlines, picturesque landscapes, mild climate, and abundant sunshine. Currently, there are six operational marinas with a combined capacity of 2150 berths: Port El Kantaoui, Monastir, Tabarka, Hammamet, Bizerte, and Sidi Bou-Saïd.
The tourism industry stands as a cornerstone of the Tunisian economy, contributing to foreign exchange and exerting considerable influence on trade, transportation, communication, crafts, and more. It accounts for 13.1% of the Tunisian gross domestic product (amounting to 13,928 MTD/year in 2018). The country boasts a hotel capacity exceeding 237,000 beds, with over 86% concentrated along Tunisian beaches [37]. Additionally, 95% of tourist activities are centered in the coastal regions.
In 2018, the tourism sector contributed to approximately 100,000 direct jobs and 289,000 indirect jobs, totaling 389,000 jobs, of which 98,000 were permanent positions [38]. This positions tourism as the second-largest employer, following agriculture.
The economic contribution of tourism is significant, especially when compared with other countries in the Mediterranean basin [37].
Maritime transport holds paramount importance for the national economy. Commercial ports and maritime transportation play a crucial role in fostering development and facilitating the promotion of Tunisia in foreign trade. As per data from the Ministry of Transport [39], a substantial 98% of the country’s foreign trade is conducted via the sea, utilizing eight commercial ports that serve as pivotal hubs in the national economy. Annually, these commercial ports manage the transit of over 30 million tons of goods, 500,000 containers, 140,000 trailers, 720,000 passengers, and 300,000 cars. Tunisia is connected to the main Mediterranean ports through nearly 40 regular maritime lines [37].
The Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Fisheries reported a 2% increase in the production of fishery and aquaculture products in Tunisia, reaching 41,562 tons by the end of the initial five months of 2021. This marks a rise from the 40,673 tons recorded during the corresponding period in 2020.
The fisheries sector holds a crucial position in Tunisia, serving as a vital source of animal protein and contributing significantly to foreign currency earnings. As of 2017, approximately 52,000 individuals directly depend on fishing for their livelihood. Over the years, from 2009 to 2019, Tunisia’s annual fish production has hovered around 125,094 tons, with the central and southern maritime areas contributing to nearly 80% of the overall total. In 2019, the Gulf of Gabès, accessible directly by three governorates (Sfax, Gabès, and Médenine), housed 23,085 fishermen, constituting nearly 45% of the country’s fishing population. Coastal fishing in this region accounted for approximately 70% of the national production in this sector, totaling around 38,000 tons of marine products. The fishing fleet in the same year comprised approximately 12,993 active units, with 93% being coastal boats. The fishing and aquaculture sector provided 50,621 jobs, distributed as follows: 71.5% in coastal fishing, 12% in bluefish fishing, 12.5% in trawling, 2% in shore fishing, and 2% in aquaculture [40].
The percentage distribution of fishing activity across Tunisian governorates in recent years is as follows (see Table 2): Jendouba and Beja (1%), Bizerte (5%), Tunis and Ben Arous (2%), Nabeul (14%), Sousse (4%), Monastir (20%), Mahdia (17%), Sfax (15%), Gabès (6%), Medenine (14%), with the remainder distributed across other governorates.
Annually, fishing and aquaculture activities produce solid waste, primarily in the form of plastic waste. This includes items like nets, fishing lines, cages, traps, ropes, crab traps, shipping containers, and packaging waste like PET. The utilization of traditional fishing tools is in decline and faces the risk of disappearing due to various factors, primarily associated with pricing, material durability, product availability, and other related considerations.
Tunisia boasts a total of 42 fishing ports spread across the country, categorized into three main types: (1) offshore ports equipped with adequate depth and length of quays, (2) coastal ports with more modest specifications, and (3) shelter sites. Additionally, there is a significant number of artisanal fishing landing sites [40].
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